Aims
- To critically review the present-day situation pertaining to police corruption in Russia
- To evaluate the effectiveness of measures that Russia currently undertakes to curb police corruption
Objectives
- To analyse the main legal, economic, social, and other drivers of police corruption in emerging economies.
- To track changes in the rate of police corruption in Russia since 1991 and compare it to other developing and developed countries.
- To identify which strategies were utilised in the country over the years in order to minimise the incidence of corruption and contrast them with mechanisms employed in developed states.
- To identify emerging implications for future policy and other strategies targeted at reducing the corruption level among Russian law enforcement personnel.
Background and Context
Corruption is defined as “behaviour by a public official that deviates from public interest” (Venard, 2009, p. 2). Normally, such behaviours include bribery and embezzlement yet, when speaking of police corruption, it may also include protection of illegal activities, interference with a criminal investigation, fabrication of evidence, and similar practices (Kosals & Iziulov, 2010; Belianin & Kosals, 2015).
As stated by Graycar (2017), corruption demoralises administration and interferes with the formulation and enforcement of policies. In addition, corruption among police officers “undermines security, makes a mockery of justice, slows economic development, and alienates populations from their governments” (Bayley & Perito, 2011, p. 2).
Corruption in the public sector and police corruption, in particular, are international problems. According to Corruption Perceptions Index developed by Transparency International (2018), in 2017, Russia was ranked 135th among the total number of 180 states analysed for their transparency levels, which indicates an elevated level of perceived corruption in the country. In the list, it is neighbouring with such emerging economies as Ukraine and Honduras, whereas such advanced economies as New Zeeland and Denmark received high transparency scores (Transparency International, 2018).
The data indicate that developing countries are more prone to corruption than developed ones. As stated by Khan (2006), this propensity is primarily defined by legal powers that endow public officials to create obstacles for citizens in the markets, as well as low opportunity costs of engaging in corruption activities. Moreover, high levels of police corruption may be determined by the overall political culture. In Russia, corruption is regarded as “a legacy of the Soviet past” (Markovska, Serdyuk, & Sokurenko, 2018, p. 146). Light (2010) also states that both the private interests of police officers and the general political agenda in the country contribute to corruption.
A study by Gladarev (2012) revealed that besides the overall cultural influences, before 2009, corruption in Russian police was also defined by the inefficiencies in the internal system of the institution, including ineffective motivation and reward systems, reduced professional prestige, lack of investment in employee skill development and so forth. Medvedev’s 2011 police reforms were intended to target those problems, purge the system, and revive public trust in law enforcement and judicial systems in Russia (Galeotti, 2012). Nevertheless, the efficacy and effectiveness of those reforms remain unclear as the number of new studies dedicated to the issue of police corruption in Russia is highly limited.
Rationale
Reviewed evidence reveals that a substantial body of literature on Russian police and corruption exist, yet studies are thematically fragmented. Therefore, the present research will strive to unify these themes and develop a holistic picture of the problem. At the same time, the main takeaway from the reviewed articles is that legal, political/cultural, and institutional factors are the primary drivers of corruptive behaviours in law enforcement personnel. Thus, future policies and reforms must target them.
A systematic literature review will be carried out to meet the formulated objectives and suggest ways to improve the trustworthiness of the Russian police.
Annotated Bibliography
Semukhina and Reynolds (2014).
The study evaluates the level of Russian citizens trust in police and identifies the links between the experience of police corruption and public perceptions of law enforcement. Besides that, it provides a comprehensive overview of historical and cultural prerequisites for police corruption in the country and, thus, may substantially inform the analysis of both pre-reform and post-reform situations.
Gerber and Mendelson (2008).
The study investigates the incidence of police violence and corruption in Russia, as well as public perceptions of police. Additionally, the researchers analyse Russian police behaviours within the “predatory policing” context and compare them to the US police behaviours. Therefore, the study will contribute additional, comparative data to present research.
Galeotti (2012).
The study provides a thorough overview of Medvedev’s policy reform and the major motivations behind these measures. Considering that the 2011 reforms were the main strategic efforts to improve the performance of Russian police and reduce the incidence of misconduct, it falls within the present research question and will thus serve as an essential source of evidence for contextual and situational analysis of the problem.
Search Strategy
Broad Topic Area
Police corruption is a widespread problem that affects both rich and poor states. Nevertheless, statistical data indicates that industrialised, advanced counties usually have lower corruption indices and greater rates of transparency across the public sector (Khan, 2006; Transparency International, 2018). According to Bayley and Perito (2011), there are five major forms of police corruption, “including scale and organization, predatory forms, subversion of justice, and gifts and discounts” (p. 4). All of them are similarly detrimental to the social and economic welfare in the countries where they are practised. Moreover, they undermine security and other basic civil rights.
More Specific Research Questions
As one of the emerging economies, Russia has an elevated rate of police corruption. Considering this, the present research project aims to answer the following questions: what are the major determinants of police corruption in Russia? Does the government acknowledge the problem, and which strategies do the authorities implement to combat it? How effective are those strategies, and what can be done to improve them?
The findings of the preliminary research reveal that police corruption in Russia was historically determined by cultural legacy (Markovska, Serdyuk, & Sokurenko, 2018; Gladarev, 2012), low opportunity costs of engaging in corruption (Khan, 2006), and institutional deficiencies (Gladarev, 2012). As a result of frequent misconduct on the part of law enforcement officers, Russian citizens have a reduced level of trust in police and the local judicial system. The 2011 police reform was the main effort to alter the situation for the better (Galeotti, 2012). Nevertheless, there is no evidence that this measure provided substantial positive changes. Thus, more detailed and comprehensive insight into the issue of police corruption may be required to come up with an effective solution.
Key Authors
Galeotti, M. (2012). Purges, power and purpose: Medvedev’s 2011 police reforms. Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, 13. Web.
Gladarev, B. (2012). Russian police before the 2010-2011 reform: A police officer’s perspective. Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, 13. Web.
Khan, M. H. (2006). Determinants of corruption in developing countries: The limits of conventional economic analysis. In S. Rose-Ackerman (Ed.), International handbook on the economics of corruption (pp. 216-244). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Semukhina, O., & Reynolds, K. M. (2014). Russian citizens’ perceptions of corruption and trust of the police. Policing & Society, 24(2), 158-188.
Venard, B. (2009). Corruption in emerging countries: A matter of isomorphism. M@n@gement, 12(1), 2-27.
Timescale
Since it is identified that the modern law enforcement system in Russia still shares a lot in common with the Soviet one, therefore, the research will look at at least 50 years in the past. Nevertheless, the main focus will be on the evolution of police behaviours within the period from 1991 up to date.
References
Bayley, D., & Perito, R. (2011). Police corruption: What past scandals teach about current challenges. Web.
Belianin, B., & Kosals, L. (2015). Collusion and corruption: An experimental study of Russian police. Web.
Corruption is still rife around the world. n. d. Web.
Galeotti, M. (2012). Purges, power and purpose: Medvedev’s 2011 police reforms. Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, 13. Web.
Gerber, T. P., & Mendelson, S. E. (2008). Public experiences of police violence and corruption in contemporary Russia: A case of predatory policing? Law & Society Review, 42(1), 1-44.
Gladarev, B. (2012). Russian police before the 2010-2011 reform: A police officer’s perspective. Police Brutality & Police Reform in Russia and the CIS, 13. Web.
Graycar, A. (2015). Corruption: Classification and analysis. Policy and Society, 34(2), 87-96.
Khan, M. H. (2006). Determinants of corruption in developing countries: The limits of conventional economic analysis. In S. Rose-Ackerman (Ed.), International handbook on the economics of corruption (pp. 216-244). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Kosals, L., & Iziulov, A. (2010). Investigations on police corruption in developed, developing, and transforming countries as part of research on informal economic activities among police personnel. Economic Sociology, 11(2), 115-125.
Light, M. (2010). Policing migration in Soviet and post-Soviet Moscow. Post-Soviet Affairs, 26(4), 275-313.
Markovska, A., Serdyuk, A., & Sokurenko, V. (2018). Corruption, policing and migration: exploring the interaction between migrant workers and police in Russia, Ukraine and the UK. International Migration, 57(1), 145-162.
Semukhina, O., & Reynolds, K. M. (2014). Russian citizens’ perceptions of corruption and trust of the police. Policing & Society, 24(2), 158-188.
The cost of corruption. n.d. Web.
Transparency International. (2018). Corruption perceptions index 2017. Web.
Venard, B. (2009). Corruption in emerging countries: A matter of isomorphism. M@n@gement, 12(1), 2-27.