Introduction
The topic of stress is the subject of not only widespread scientific research but of lay discussion, speculation, and conjecture. This paper will attempt to discuss the topic and to highlight cross-cultural definitions and management practices between the west and the Japanese setup. The paper explains stress, and its effects on health and in terms of clinical disease and on family life if it is not managed.
What is Stress?
An attempt of describing stress as the effects of negative effects on a person well being may be misleading; this is because not all negative events, despite their magnitude, have a negative effect on the well being of a person; and they do not always trigger psychological distress to the person (Viner, 1999).
Psychological distress occurs only if the person cannot cope with the demands arising from a particular event or situation. Consequently, an event with a huge magnitude, for instance, aerial bombing of a city (for example during the Second World War), may not have the widespread effect on the psychology of the people as expected [Brown & Tirril, 1989]. Therefore, the occurrence of psychological distress is influenced by various factors and cannot entirely be attributed to the triggering event. We can therefore define stress as the lack of capacity of a person to respond effectively to a real or perceived event (Viner, 1999).
The occurrence of stress is controlled by how the person views the events that trigger the distress; firstly, different people will view the severity of the threat differently, consequently, they may be exposed to the same environment with the effects thereafter being more severe in one person and non-existent in the other (Brown & Tirril, 1989). Therefore, the issue of vulnerability is always present as not all subjects view the event in the same light; for example, a devastating accident, like a fire happening in the workplace can have different effects on the survivors of such an event; the survivors who have to work in a similar environment to earn a living will be more vulnerable to the stress that those who have the choice of moving to another industry (Brown & Tirril, 1989; Viner, 1999).
The social structure that one is living in is very important in determining the effects of a possibly stressful event on the person’s psychology; in an environment where someone feels supported, appreciated, and understood; chances are they are less vulnerable to a triggering event than a person who has no support. The family structure in particular is very important.
The response of the body
The body is affected extensively failing to cope with a triggering event; various systems in the body respond either individually or in conjunction with other systems to produce the signs and effects of stress (Emeran et al., 2001).
The neuroendocrine system is of particular importance since it is among the first to respond and influence other systems; the hypophyseal portal system receives two factors, the corticotropin-releasing hormone and arginine-vasopressin from neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nuclei in the brain that respond to sensory stimuli directed from the sensory cortex of the central nervous system. The pituitary then releases the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream; the main target of ACTH is the cortex of the adrenal gland which in turn releases glucocorticoids into the bloodstream. These corticoids have effects on various body systems that result in the signs of stress (Glavas & Weinberg, 2005).
How Stress Can Cause Disease
Among the most important adrenocorticoids released by the cortex of the adrenal glands is adrenalin; this hormone prepares the body for a fight-or-flight response to an external stimulus by elevating the levels of available glucose in the bloodstream, increasing the heart rate and the stroke volume, suppressing other functions of the body that cannot contribute to the response (such as digestion), increasing the flow of blood to the muscles. Most importantly, stress affects the ability of the body to fight diseases by affecting the immune system (Katcher et al, 1973); additionally, exposure to a chronically stressful situation ensures that these factors are released at a constant rate thus their effects are always there; this may result in serious metabolic disease (Bower & Segerstrom, 2004). For example, maintenance of blood sugar at a high concentration through the effect of the corticoids can lead to Type II Diabetes.
Cardiovascular system
Persons who are chronically stressed have high levels of vasoactive and cardioactive substances coursing through their blood vessels constantly; this aim at maintaining high blood pressure and cardiac output for the fight-or-flight response. This maintenance eventually leads to hypertension and heart failure; and other circulatory diseases.
The gastrointestinal system
Among other conditions, Irritable bowel syndrome has been directly linked to stressful events in the sufferers (Emeran et al, 2001). The condition is seen as pain, diarrhea, altered bowel movements, and other effects; the condition is attributed to the neuro-endocrine effects of stress on the GIT system (Emeran et al, 2001).
The glucocorticoids also have the effect of increasing the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach resulting in an increased probability of gastric and duodenal ulcers (Esler & Goulston, 1973).
Stress and infections
An infectious disease is one that requires the body to be infested by an outside organism that attacks and establishes itself in the various systems and cause ill health in the host (Cohen and Williamson, 1991). It is prudent to mention that an infectious disease cannot occur in the absence of a pathogen; however, the presence of stress can create a condition that encourages infection of a person by the pathogen.
Stress affects the immune system of the body either by the effect of hormones released during stress that lower the immunity; or through neural effect on lymphoid organs from the CNS. This has the double effect of increasing the chance of infection and allowing the development of latent infections (Katcher et al, 1973).
Secondly, the person can have behavioral changes caused by stress that increase the chances of getting infected (Cohen and Williamson, 1991); examples of such practices include increased consumption of alcohol or smoking, altered eating habits leading to poor diet and sleeping disorders. Other possible psychological effects include engaging in unsafe sex and poor maintenance of personal and habitat hygiene therefore increasing the load of potentially harmful microbes in the person’s environment. We must mention that a stressed person has relatively higher levels of sensory awareness stemming from the release of stress hormones to the system (Cohen and Williamson, 1991); consequently, they might perceive the symptoms of disease as being more severe compared to a person who is not stressed. Additionally, in the effort to seek attention and support during the stressful period, a person is more likely to report a disease even from mild symptoms thus creating a perception that stressed people get sick often.
Management of Stress
Stress management, prevention and reduction has been the subject of a lot of discussion ranging from scientific, social, religious and mystical. A search of the subject on the internet yield over 38 million results on the topic; this are only the materials that have been posted there; millions of other materials can be found on book shelves, magazine racks and journals.
However, the basis of stress management is the reduction of the negative effects of an event on the physical and mental wellbeing of the person; thus the prevention of such an event from causing psychological distress. Since negative events or chronically stressful situations cannot be avoided, it is best therefore to learn how to cope with them on a day to day basis.
The Western view
As much as stressful conditions are found among the day to day interactions with the society, stress is usually seen as a failure of an individual to cope with such pressure; it has therefore been generally accepted that some situations are more stressful than others and that some people are more prone to stress than others. Consequently, the management of stress is seen as an individual effort augmented by the support of the society.
The effect of this has been an increased focus on the stressor rather that on the person; methods to adapt to the stress triggers, to alter the stressful situations, to avoid such situations or to accept them have been devised in numerous attempts to mitigate stress (Keil, 2006).
Among the most important of these methods is the reduction of the amount of pressure a person is exposed to by refusing added responsibilities that are beyond the person’s abilities; by tackling more issues than one can handle at a time, the person may fail to effectively cope resulting in stress. Another way of stressful situations is by deliberate time management so that adequate time is allocated for each task and completion of tasks is prioritized according to importance and urgency; this avoids wasting time on useless tasks and last minute rush to complete must-do ones (Keil, 2006). There is also emphasis on taking control of one life by actively avoiding company that is stressful, being assertive and keeping communication channels open rather than leaving issues unresolved (Keil, 2006); this will allow someone room to manipulate and to prevent the feeling of being trapped in a situation. There is also the option of seeking professional help for psychiatric therapists who help the person to reconcile their situation, their mental status and the physical responses.
Change of attitude towards a stressful situation, for example accepting it as an integral part of your life and learning to handle it better is also another way.
Ways of escaping from the stressful environment through relaxation practices such as walks, exercise, fun-activities and spending time with family can also reduce the effects of a stress on the wellbeing (Bower & Segerstrom, 2004).
Failure to deal with a stressful situations leads to trying to cope with the psychological and physiological affects through unhealthy practices such as alcohol abuse, excessive smoking, drug abuse, poor eating habits, over-consumption of caffeinated products or psychoactive prescription medication, anxiety and sleeping disorders (Glavas & Weinberg, 2005). This comes with a raft of harmful physical effects and social effects (Bower & Segerstrom, 2004); such as isolation and breakup of families. Eventually, it may lead to metal illness.
Japan
Among the most notable aspects of the Japanese social structure is the way they view the individual in relation to the society. From an early age, Japanese children are taught that their individuality can only be fulfilled if it augments the wellbeing of the other members of the society starting from the family and extending to the neighbourhood, and eventually the nation. Therefore, a sentiment of empathy is considered a virtue in Japanese social culture.
This has over the years created a society that is highly interdependent on each other that forms an intricate web of relationships starting in the family and spreading centripetally (Junko, 1979). Contrary to the western culture where an individual is viewed as an independent entity, the Japanese individual is defined through the interacting with other people; the society strives to attain maximum benefits from the collective efforts of every member of the distinctive group and therefore, a problem that is affecting one member of the group also affects all the members (Toshikate, 2003). While this structure may be viewed as overbearing or unhealthy to individual development by the west, the desire to achieve a harmonious society is pursued by the active control of the self; therefore, rather than being a weakness, social conformity is a sign of strength and self-discipline in the struggle to attain perfection (Junko, 1979).
This structure offers the perfect social support for a stressed person; the person will not feel abandoned and the empathy will reduce the negative psychological effects of a negative event by increasing the persons ability to absorb the pressure of the demands on his/her capacity. The knowledge that the family and the society is always there to support you increases this capacity.
The Japanese society has many practices that are aimed at increasing this feeling of oneness in the group. For example, the Japanese tea ceremony, known as Chanoyu is an intricate ritual that transforms a simple act of making and drinking tea into a complex interaction between the persons attending such a ceremony that may last up to four hours (Morgan, 2006). This not only offers intimate contact between the attendants but the calm and controlled environment has a calming effects far removed from the stressful events. The culture also offers many other similar opportunities for persons in a distinct group to bond and support each other (Toshikate, 2003).
The positive effects of the Japanese social structure on the ability to cope with stress can also be a source of stress; the society is very competitive with the demand for perfection very high (Toshikate, 2003). With such a comprehensive social structure, competition within a group can give rise to conflicts and enmities; this is made worse by the fact that such disputes are solved by the person of high authority within the group and can leave grudges smoldering for years. Additionally, the natural Japanese reaction to such a dispute is to deny it to the outsider or other uninvolved persons in the group thus increasing the chance of it going unresolved.
Additionally, the pressure from the immediate relations to excel for the benefit of the group; and not to be perceived as a social failure may also be a source of stress and can lead to alcoholism and psychosomatic illness such as gastrointestinal disturbances in children who are under pressure to improve in school.
Where a rigid social structure may fail to offer the necessary support for the person to manage stress, the common result for the Japanese is escapism; many forms are present, some are traditional and others are modern. Such include working and sitting in gardens, popular culture and television.
Conclusion
As mentioned before, it is not possible to avoid all situations that are stressful; the important thing to remember is that the magnitude of the event is not as important as the response of the body to it. While it is not possible to control some responses of the body for example the fight-or-flight response to danger, it is important to learn how to gauge such danger to avoid the body being in a state of high alert which has obvious negative effects on the metabolism.
Additionally, better methods of dealing with people suffering from the effects of stress should be formulated; this will cope with an ever-increasing stressful lifestyle of today’s world.
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