Territorial Claims of Antarctica and the Antarctic Treaty Thesis

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Introduction

Antarctica, the white cold Southern mass of land covers 10 percent of the world’s land and is one of the ideal places to study climate change and the environment as it is the least populated and is the most protected from human exploitation.

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According to legend: “It was the ancient Greeks who first came up with the idea of Antarctica. They knew about the Arctic – named Arktos – The Bear, from the constellation the great bear and decided that in order to balance the world, there should be a similar cold Southern landmass that was the same but the opposite “Ant – Arktos” – opposite The Bear.” 1 (Antarctica History)

The thesis statement that this research paper argues for is the fact that the Antarctic Treaty has been effective in maintaining peace and order in the region. With regards to this, there have been seven nations that claim the territory of the continent, but while Arctic claims have been heatedly debated and contended, Antarctica boasts of having the least amount of conflict in its history as a place in this world might have.

Given this argument, the paper traces the history of Antarctica to fully explore how and why the claims came about, the individual claims of the countries and the treaty and the system it is included under as well as the conclusions drawn from the upholding of the treaty to date.

History of Antarctica

Many countries over the world have been involved in shaping the continent’s history and have been pivotal in its development to date. However, who discovered the continent and saw it first, has been controversial as Nathaniel Palmer, an American explorer, Edward Bransfield an English explorer and, a Russian naval officer Captain Thaddeus Bellingshausen, have all claimed to have been the first to see the continent in the year 1820. These explorers were preceded by Captain James Cook, who was the first to cross the Antarctic Circle in 1775 but claimed no land sightings.

Antarctica was an attractive prospect for many seal and whale hunters at the close of the nineteenth century as the ocean rich with sea life, especially seals and whales was seen as a means of commerce by many nations. The sealing vessels that visited Antarctica in those days were mainly from America and Britain but many other countries such as Argentina, New Zealand, Australia, Norway, Germany, and South Africa were also participants. There were some visitors in Antarctica; however who went there for the purposes of exploration, discovery and science and these included the likes of the French expedition led by Dumont d’Urville in 1837 when Adélie Land was discovered by the expeditionary team and later it was claimed for France. Moreover some other expeditions that took place for reasons of science and exploration include that of Charles Wilkes where a large portion of the East Antarctic Coast was explored and the Clark Ross expedition after which the sea they discovered is named.

1898 was an important year for Antarctic explorers as the feasibility of surviving winter in Antarctica was proved when the crew of the Belgian Adrien de Gerlache on the ship “Belgica” were trapped in ice near the Antarctic Peninsula as they carried on their first scientific exploration. Incidentally they were the pioneers as they were the first to survive as their ship was trapped in ice.2

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The beginning of the 20th century, which is also known as the Heroic Era for Antarctica, was marked by visitors and seafarers to the Antarctic with the objective of claiming territory and national prestige by being marked in history as the discoverers of the South Pole. Many explorers and teams made headway but it was Norwegian Roald Amundsen in 1911 who finally reached the South Pole.

Robert F. Scott and Ernest Henry Shackleton, both Englishmen, led three expeditions during the period 1901-1913, through which they discovered routes in the interior of the continent and made discoveries of geologic, glaciological, and meteorological natures that laid the basis of today’s research programs. It was these expeditions which used various means of transportation, including aerial, by means of a captive balloon that was used by Robert F Scott as well as land transportation via automobiles used by Ernest Shackleton.

Once the South Pole had been discovered by Roald Amundsen and a month later by Robert F Scott, people believed that there might be a channel that connected the Ross and the Weddell sea and Shackleton, in order to test this idea organized an expedition in 1914, but Shackleon’s Shop got crushed in ice and another such exploration took several decades when a British Commonwealth expedition led by Vivian Fuchs materialized and attained its goal in 1957.

During this gap spanning several decades, Sir George Wilkins an Australian and Carl Benjamin Eielson an American became the first to fly over Antarctica around the peninsula region.

Antarctica Claimants

Antarctica has been the first ever land mass to have been really discovered by humanity as there was no human life on the continent and it was only when it was discovered that people began to live on the island, for sealing, whaling or for scientific purposes. It was because so many nations were involved in exploring and trying to reach the South Pole as well as trying to claim the land for themselves that controversies came into existence. Many people from many nations were involved, ranging from Americans, to Englishmen to Norwegian, wherein a Norway national was the first human to reach the South Pole.

Considering this background it is not surprising that there were controversies not only relating to claiming the land for their country, but also in terms of who sighted what first and who made the discovery first.

According to Encyclopaedia Britannica: “The struggle for national influence was especially acute in the slender peninsular landmass south of Scotia Sea that became known as O’Higgins Land (Tierra O’Higgins) to Chileans and San Martin Land (Tierra San Martín) to Argentines, named for national heroes who helped in gaining independence from Spain. To the English it was known as Graham Land, for a former first lord of the admiralty, and to Americans as Palmer Peninsula, for the sealer and explorer Nathaniel Palmer. By international agreement, the region is now known simply as the Antarctic Peninsula, Graham Land its northern half and Palmer Land its southern half.”3(Encyclopaedia Britannica)

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The initial period in the 1900s was a controversial period when there were seven claimants for various sectors of Antarctica. However there were some more nations such as the US and the Soviet Union that had led explorations but had not formally claimed ownership of the land even though the teams that had led these expeditions had laid their claim on the territory.

Also part of these controversies was the fact that some areas were claimed by one nation and was the transferred on to another. For example, the coastal region discovered Englishman James Ross in 1841 had now been transferred to New Zealand.

However US took retaliatory action in 1924, when the French claimed Adélie Land for themselves and took an official stance by announcing that the claim was invalid as the land was previously undiscovered, and even though a formal claim had been made, lack of French settlement in the area was reason enough to nullify France’s claim. And that America would acknowledge the claim only if Frenchmen had settled in the territory. This announcement hence has been the official stance of the US in many proceeding cases.

Britain’s Claim to Antarctica

Britain’s decision to maintain their presence in Antarctica came about when the nation feared that their claim to Deception Island may be lost to Argentineans, who had initially claimed the land for themselves. The symbol which marked Argentina’s claim was returned to Argentina which caused retaliatory action from Argentina’s quarters. However, once again the Argentinean signs and flags were destroyed and the Union Jack took its place. This action was followed by the establishment of a British base in Antarctica while several other stations too were built to strengthen their presence on the “white continent”.

Today the British have claimed more Antarctic land. According to Time magazine, the British have laid claim to ‘385,000 sq mi (1 million sq km) of seabed off the coast of Antarctica’. (Graff, 2007)

According to Rick Rozoff in his article ‘Scramble For World Resources: Battle For Antarctica’: “On this May 11 Britain submitted its claim to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf for the one million square kilometers it covets in the South Atlantic reaching into the Antarctic Ocean.

This was the formalization of plans initially revealed in October of 2007 and described in a press report of the time as a plan to “extend British sovereignty in Antarctica,” a zone which “covers a vast area of the seabed around British Antarctica near the south pole.” (Rozoff, 2009)

This claim was contended by Argentina and Chile, who held meetings in Antarctica. The two countries already have overlapping claims in the same territory, but nothing has been done about these claims following the enforcement of this treaty in 1961. The point of disagreement here is that the sea territory claimed by Britain is an extension of its land territory in Antarctica and is speculated to be a reserve to oil and gas. Although the treaty bans mining and exploitation of natural resources for energy purposes it is seen as a source of concern for many as the claim is not the first of this kind and two more previous claimants i.e. Australia and New Zealand have laid claim to Antarctic Coastline land blocs. The reason for this is the fact that these countries are looking at future drilling opportunities for oil or gas reserves. Although the current treaty bans mining, there are speculations by experts that the treaty might be negotiated again and amended so as to allow mining as there are chances that oil or gas can be found as there are reports that the seabed hide a vast reserve of resources that are still unexploited.

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Argentina and Chile’s Claim to Antarctica

According to Global Oneness: “The Argentinean presence in the sector, according to some historical investigations, took place in the second decade of the 19th century; some even affirm that it took place by the end of the previous century. They were Argentinean fishing ships that from the port of Buenos Aires went to the now called South Shetland Islands in search of their catch. However, navigators of other countries attributed to themselves the discovery of Antarctica. By the end of the 19th century the aid lent by Argentina to foreign expeditions, in particular that of Nordenskjöld, Gerlache and Charcot, was properly appreciated. There remains as tangible result, a series of Argentine place names to Antarctic geographic features: Argentine Islands, Uruguay Islands, General Roca, Quintana, and others.” 4

Argentina bases its claims on several reasons: firstly that The Antarctic peninsula is part of the Andes and that Argentina has the oldest presence in the region ad has established one of the oldest bases in Antarctica, namely the Orcadas Station. Secondly, Argentina has been an active participant in Antarctica and its development, having constructed the first airport in 1969 along with lighthouses and other navigational aids. Lastly and most importantly, Argentina has sent more people to Antarctica than all the other countries together.

Apart from the fact that Argentina’s role in Antarctica’s development has been pivotal the reason for Argentina as well as Chile’s stance was because they were instigated to establish claims in Antarctica when the British took over the region previously claimed by Argentina and established settlements there. Following this, Argentina, in collaboration with Chile established bases at several sites in 1947, where the Argentineans had already maintained a weather station in the South Orkney Islands since 1903. This was followed by more concerns when the US initiated the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (RARE) in 1947–48 on Marguerite Bay, but these concerns were later proved to be unfounded. After the incident of chasing away the British scientist team in 1952, Argentina built General Belgrano Station on the Filchner Ice Shelf to help establish its claim in the territory better. Moreover many more bases were built in close vicinity of its British and Chilean counterparts where to outside observers it seemed as if the purpose was to spy on other countries rather than establish their own claims.

Currently, the Argentine has two territorial claims in Antarctica, namely the Island of South Atlantic and Tierra del Fuego. However the later claim which spans 25°W to 74°W, and has been in place since 1943, is not recognized by the United Nations, U.S., Russia and most other countries.5

Furthermore the current Chilean claim spans Magellanes and Chilean Antarctica, 53°W to 90°W but it overlaps Argentine and British claims.

Argentina versus UK

Armed conflict has occurred over claims between Argentina and United Kingdom and these have been the only two conflicts that have occurred in Antarctica’s history since it was discovered. The fist conflict occurred when Argentineans in 1952 when the Argentine Navy forced a British team back to its ship at Hope Bay, while the second incident took place when Argentineans in 1982, invaded the Falklands and the South Georgia Island. The British retaliated by sending a military force to tackle the situation and as result Argentinean forces surrendered.

France’s Claim to Antarctica

Among the other nations that have laid their claim on Antarctic territory is France which claims French Southern and Antarctic Lands lying from 142°E to 136°W. Among these is Adelie Land which has not recognized by the United Nations, U.S., Russia, or by most other countries while other disputed territories include the likes of Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands and Juan de Nova Island that are claimed by Madagascar while Tromelin Island has been claimed by Mauritius.6

Other Claimants

Among the likes of major claimants such as England, Argentina, Chile and France are other nations that have declared various territories as theirs. These include Australia where the country has stations on Heard and Macquarie islands and also has a station on Mac. Robertson Land.

United States and Antarctica

Since the beginning United States has not exerted its claims on the continent but it refuses to recognize any other country’s claims either. The US has led many expeditions into the continent and has been a pioneer in research and development in the region. However ever since the exploration of Antarctica began, the policy of the U.S has been, in the words of the Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles as stated on the website of the U.S. National Science Foundation, Office of Polar Program:

“In view of the activities of the United States and its nationals referred to above, my Government reserves all of the rights of the United States with respect to the Antarctic region, including the right to assert a territorial claim or claims.

It is the opinion of my Government, however, that the interests of mankind would best be served, in consonance with the high ideals of the Charter of the United Nations, if the countries which have a direct interest in Antarctica were to join together in the conclusion of a treaty which would have the following peaceful purposes:

  1. Freedom of scientific investigation throughout Antarctica by citizens, organizations, and governments of all countries.
  2. International agreement to ensure that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only.
  3. Any other peaceful purposes not inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations.

It is believed that such a treaty can be concluded without requiring any participating nation to renounce whatever basic historic rights it may have in Antarctica, or whatever claims of sovereignty it may have asserted. It could be specifically provided that such basic rights and such claims would remain unaffected while the treaty is in force, and that no new rights would be acquired and no new claims made by any country during the duration of the treaty.”7

The Soviet Union and Antarctica

The then Soviet Union could have laid claim on Antarctica where the Russian explorer Bellingshausen was one of the earliest expeditionary there. However Soviet Union did not lay any claims of it own on the land and in 1950 announced by sending a memorandum to various nations that it would not recognize any claims or decisions made without its consultation or participation. Soviet Union has been

Events that led to the formation of the Antarctic Treaty

The discoveries at the South Pole proved to be a major point of contention between nations as they struggled to establish territorial and geographical nomenclature claims when seas, islands, ridges etc were names after discoverers. However, in an International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), meeting held in 1954 Antarctic exploration and discovery was emphasised as there was minimum human exploitation of the continent and it is an ideal place to study cosmic activity. Hence in 1955 an Antarctic Conference was held, which was the first of its kind. This conference had the agenda of coordinating expedition activities in order to further science and this was announced formally by the presiding member of the conference. This announcement was made keeping in view the political tensions between participating countries and served its purpose by easing such apprehensions. As a result of this planning 12 participating nations set up 50 stations in the region. Additionally according to Encyclopaedia Britannica, aircraft flights, tractor traverses, and an airlift by giant cargo aircraft was established in order to set up a station at the South Pole.

The Treaty

The treaty is a unique agreement, all the more so because it was made in the time of the Cold War. Moreover, it has served to have Antarctica be used only for peaceful purposes and prohibits that nuclear waste be dumped at the site. All the more, it is the first nuclear agreement and is an example of international cooperation for the greater good of mankind.

The treaty came about as a result of nations fearing that the end of the International Geophysical year (IGY), all the scientific research activities that were being carried out would come to an end as the year end would signal an end to international cooperation. The continent was due to suffer heavily from this in terms of lost opportunity as many advances were made in science as Antarctica is one of the very few places on earth where war has not taken place and the environment is well protected and there is minimal pollution. However, in 1958 President Dwight D. Eisenhower proposed a treaty to the nations involved in research in Antarctica, namely: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States in order to ensure a lasting free and peaceful status for the continent. This treaty now called the Antarctic Treaty, holds all territorial claims on Antarctica in abeyance which implies that the countries claim land for themselves while there is no official recognition of such claims. The treaty in its implications and its various articles propagates the peaceful use of the continent, international cooperation and advancement of science through exchange of research and discoveries. Moreover it prohibits the use of military power except in case it is used to further science and for peaceful purposes and at the same time, disallows the continent to be used as a nuclear waste dumping ground.

An article wise summarization of the treaty, as adapted from Encyclopaedia Britannica shows that each of its 12 articles states a different clause, each for the purposes of maintaining peace and stability in the region. Article I of the treaty perpetuates the peaceful use of Antarctica, and prohibits any form of conflict among nations. This is particularly important as the continent has never been inhabited by humans and hence all those who set foot on it, or sighted it first claim its territory, and this is reason abound for any sort of conflict. The second article moves towards international cooperation and freedom of scientific investigation wherein scientists participating in the development of science and discovery based on Antarctica’s soil could do so without stress of conflict. The sharing of discoveries by various teams is also encouraged via this treaty as Article III encourages free exchange of plans, scientific results, and personnel; so as it is not restricted to only one nation or one party and is developmental and progressive rather than having each scientific team researching an area that already has been worked upon by another. Article IV of the treaty reinstates the official position of the consortium of countries where the claims on Antarctic territory have not been annulled but any more claims on the land have been forbidden. Moreover, claims on Antarctic territory on basis of scientific research carried out by nations will not be entertained any further. The next article prohibits nuclear explosions or waste disposal. This article in essence protects Antarctica’s environment from pollution as it is the continent’s status as an unexploited reserve that attracts scientists and researchers. Article VI states that the treaty will be applicable to all areas except for high seas and ice shelves that are south of 60° S latitude. The next article allows other nations to be able to openly inspect the workings of other countries’ teams so that any suspicions about another’s activities might be removed and transparency exists in operations while Article Article XI states that disputes and contentions can be referred to the International Court of Justice in case is if nations are unable to settle via negotiations or adjudication. The last article requires for the treaty to be reviewed after 30 years of being in force. (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

The Treaty allows any member nation of the United Nations to become signatory to the treaty hence over the years the number of members has increase from the original 12 signatories to 46 signatories of which 28 are Consultative Parties on the basis of being original signatories or by conducting substantial research there.8(British Antarctic Survey)

The Antarctic Treaty Today

According to Antarcticconnection.com: “As of May 2000, 15 additional nations (Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Ecuador, Finland, Germany, India, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Peru, Republic of Korea, Sweden, Spain, and Uruguay) have achieved consultative status by acceding to the Treaty and by conducting substantial scientific research in Antarctica. Russia carries forward the signatory privileges and responsibilities established by the former Soviet Union.

Another 17 nations have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Austria, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Denmark, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Papua New Guinea, Romania, Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, and Venezuela. These nations agree to abide by the treaty and may attend consultative meetings as observers.

The 44 Antarctic Treaty nations represent about two-thirds of the world’s human population.”9

Of the 12 countries that originally signed the Treaty, seven states are countries that have proclaimed ownership of some part of Antarctic land or the other whereas now, after the implementation of the treaty, no new claims can be submitted when the claims already announced are not recognized by countries such as the US and the Treaty itself holds all claims in abeyance.

According to SCAR10: “The Treaty is augmented by Recommendations adopted at Consultative Meetings, by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid, 1991), and by two separate conventions dealing with the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (London 1972), and the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (Canberra 1980). The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (Wellington 1988), negotiated between 1982 and 1988, will not enter into force.

The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) is now held annually. During each ATCM, there is also a meeting of the Committee of Environmental Protection (CEP). The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) is an observer at ATCMs and CEPs, and provides independent scientific advice as requested in a variety of fields, particularly on environmental and conservation matters.”11 (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research).

The Antarctic Treaty System

The Antarctic treaty today has become part of the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting ATCM, which is held every year is the reason for the formation of the system which safeguards teh ations’ interests as well as those of the preservation of the continent. The treaty is now accompanied by a number of agreements and a number of organizations that are part of the decision making in the continent.

The matters discussed at the ATCM include, according to Britannica: “scientific cooperation, protection of the Antarctic environment, conservation of plants and animals, preservation of historic sites, designation and management of protected areas, management of tourism, information exchange, collection of meteorological data, hydrographic charting, logistic cooperation, and communications and safety.” (Britannica)

Moreover, another research committees called SCAR The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) has been formed that provides expert advice and findings to teams working there and acts as a forum of scientic and esearch cooperation among other things.

Further according to Britannica: “Under the Treaty, each party has enjoyed peaceful cooperation and freedom of scientific research. That research has contributed significantly to knowledge of the Earth and is contributing to the protection of the global environment. Environmental monitoring in Antarctica has, for example, led to the discovery of the seasonal depletion of atmospheric ozone over the Antarctic.

As the Antarctic Treaty System matures it has become recognised as one of the most successful sets of international agreements, setting an example of peaceful cooperation for the rest of the world.” (Britannica)

As an environmental regime it is unique – an entire continent, which is essentially undisturbed, will remain protected because of the commitment and cooperation of the Treaty parties. Also, in order to have the research efforts continue after the International Geophysical year was over, ICSU formed SCAR, the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) which Synchronizes Arntarctic scientific and research activities and through the ICSU organizes Antarctic programs that are global in nature.

The Repercussions of the Treaty

The treaty has been hailed as the first nuclear arms treaty where all the nations have agreed not to employ nuclear research in the area and is the prime example of international cooperation, especially since it was adhered to even in times of the Cold War when the USA and the Soviet Union were dead against each other.

The treaty has been the cause of further research in the Antarctic and can be said to be the main reason why there is little discord in its history. The research on the ozone layer was carried out in the Antarctic because of the conditions at the South Pole that were ideal for this sort of research. Moreover as this is a zone of little conflict, other countries too have stared showing an interest in the region and have sent expedition albeit in the late 1970’s to conduct their own research in the area which has given rise to national programs. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica:

“This latter group includes Italy, which mounted its first expedition during 1975–76; Uruguay, which made its first land expedition in 1975; Poland, which established marine and land programs during 1976–77; West Germany, which first undertook large-scale operations in 1980–81; India, which began work in the early 1980s; and China, which established its first station in 1984.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Given that the treaty has been held in high esteem by member nations it is imperative that it impose some affect on the nations that had been claiming Antarctic territory as theirs.

In the case if Great Britain, the nation proved it owned portions of the continent by setting up bases, organizing expeditions and setting up weather and overwintering stations in the region. Initially these bases or station were located very close to Argentinean or Chilean stations and seemed as if they were located in such close proximity to each other in order to perform intelligence services, but once collaborative programs started taking place much of those strains have vanished.

Argentinean and Chilean claims asserted more so after England has tried to take over land that they initially claimed have had a strong presence in the continent. After the negotiations of this treaty, the two countries could concentrate on scientific discovery rather than conflicting with England ad this has actually led to further discoveries. Moreover the tensions between these nations have eased leading to better cooperation in the region.

With regards to France, the country too has started concentrating more on discoveries rather than militarizing its expeditions and work and has been active in upholding peace in the region.

Conclusion

The thesis statement has thus been proved as the treaty which was enforced in 1961 has been one of the most successful ones as it has effectively helped avoid conflict. One of the reasons could be that all nations are making an extra effort to be cooperative in this endeavour. Yet another reason for the continuation of this treaty and the lack of discord is that Antarctica has a hardy climate that makes it extremely difficult for anyone to live there on a permanent basis and to settle families there is extremely difficult even more so than the Arctic which is at least closer to civilization that Antarctica, lying in the extreme south is. Moreover, with the development in science, it has become easier than ever to access the continent and to do constructions which was not the case before and hence was the reason many a country thought many times over about the feasibility to investing scarce resources in a far off continent where exploitation of resources for commerce was not allowed.

The Antarctic Treaty has been an illustrative example of how when nations cooperate, mankind can progress by leaps and bounds in a conducive environment. Although nothing much of value has been discovered from the continent in terms of mineral and fossil fuels, nations continue to hope and to search for clues and scientific evidence that can help them understand some of the mysteries of the world.

The treaty has now been evolved due to its resilience throughout history into a proper system which includes various other acts for the conservation and protection of the area as a result of which Antarctica has been to a great extent protected from pollution. Even so when Ban Ki Moon the UN Secretary General, the first ever to visit Antarctica he noted that Antarctica was on the verge of collapse and the climate change situation had reached alarming proportions. As reported on the UN News Centre Website:

“The Secretary-General offered stark figures to illustrate his point, noting that the glaciers on King George Island have shrunk by 10 per cent, while some in Admirality Bay have retreated by 25 kilometers. He also recalled how the 87-kilometer “Larsen B ice sheet” collapsed several years ago and disappeared within weeks and warned that the entire Western Antarctic Ice Shelf is at risk.

“It is all floating ice, one fifth of the entire continent. If it broke up, sea levels could rise by 6 meters or 18 feet,” he noted, pointing out that 138 tons of ice are now being lost every year.

Other “deeply worrying signs” he mentioned were the shrinking penguin population of Chabrier Rock, which has dipped by 57 per cent in the last 25 years. “What will happen to the annual march of the penguins in the future? Will there even be one?”

At the same time, grass is growing for the first time ever on King George Island, where it rains rather than snows increasingly in the summer.

“These things should alarm us all. Antarctica is a natural lab that helps us understand what is happening to our world. We must save this precious earth, including all that is here. It is a natural wonder, but above all, it is our common home,” said Mr. Ban.” 12

While it is true that many a discord has been avoided via this treaty the claims that nations are making along its coastline and the seas is a source of concern for many scientists, environmentalists and conservationists of the continent, this is because while the treaty provides for land’s safety and non exploitation in terms of mining and drilling, the seas surrounding the continent are becoming a source of debate as there are speculations of oil and mineral reserves under the sea bed.

Therefore the protectors of the continent need to bear in mind that the temptation of owning oil and gas resources for many countries does not precede as it has in many cases and that the participating nations look at what they have done to the current environment before they proceed to destroy Antarctica as well.

References

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Antarctic Treaty Information. Web.

British Antarctic Survey. .

Cool Antarctica. .

Classroom Antarctica. Antarctic Treaty. Web.

Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Graff, James. 2007. The British Are Coming — to Antarctica.Time. Web.

Griffiths, Tom. . (Heron and Crane, 2007).

McGonigal, David. .(Frances Lincoln Limited, 2009).

National Science Foundation, Office of Polar Programs. U.S. Antarctic Policy — Historical Perspective. Web.

Richard Reynolds. 2009. . ABC News.

Rick Rozoff. 2009. . Global Research.

Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Baltimore, USA, 2009. Web.

Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Resolution I (2009). Ensuring the legacy of the International Polar Year (IPY). Web.

Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Antarctic Treaty – The Antarctic Treaty System: an introduction. Web.

Terraquest. Virtual Antarctica History. The Antarctic Treaty. Web.

World Statesmen. .

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IvyPanda. (2022, July 11). Territorial Claims of Antarctica and the Antarctic Treaty. https://ivypanda.com/essays/territorial-claims-of-antarctica-and-the-antarctic-treaty/

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IvyPanda. (2022) 'Territorial Claims of Antarctica and the Antarctic Treaty'. 11 July.

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IvyPanda. 2022. "Territorial Claims of Antarctica and the Antarctic Treaty." July 11, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/territorial-claims-of-antarctica-and-the-antarctic-treaty/.

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