The cultural outlook of the Americas has been forming for millennia, with multiple civilizations contributing to it. Different nations, now commonly referred to as “indigenous people”, were in fact, as diverse in their traditions and technologies as many European or Asian societies. Numerous events defined the Americas’ historical timeline throughout the centuries, but European conquest was arguably the most important, as it signaled the beginning of the new global historical era.
As the most recent major ice age ended about 10-15 thousand years ago, it opened new territories for human exploration. During this period, tribes of hunters and gatherers crossed the Bering strait to lay the foundation for the early American civilizations (notes from the PowerPoint presentations). Climate change created favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, which was the defining factor in forming more sophisticated societies worldwide. However, Beezley (2011) notes that agriculture did not develop in the Americas until circa 3600 BC when corn was domesticated. For the next few centuries, the continuous evolution of agricultural technologies was the main driving force of progress in the region. The Valley of Mississippi river, Central America, and the Andes are usually cited as three main zones where new civilizations emerged (notes from the PowerPoint presentations). However, relatively little is known about the early American cultures that existed before the Olmecs.
Olmec culture largely defined the period that is known as the Formative Era (2000 BC – 200 AD). Their legacy includes pyramid-shaped temples, giant carved head sculptures, and glyphs. Their architecture and art preceded the Mayan civilization that dominated the Mesoamerican region during the Classic Era (200-900 AD). Beezley (2011) states that the advanced agricultural techniques and the use of obsidian predominantly contributed to the prosperity and diversification of the Mayan society. Fertilizing the soil allowed them to use the fields for several years and yield better harvests (Beezley, 2011). Mayan knowledge of astronomy and mathematics was extensive and, in some ways, superior to that of Europeans and Asians (Beezley, 2011). It allowed for the creation of the extremely precise calendars that were unmatched among American cultures. Overall, even though Maya heavily relied on ancient traditions like sacrifices seen by Europeans as barbaric, some aspects of their culture were indicative of significant progress and potential.
During Post-Classic Era (800-1519 AD), Maya and other major cultures of the region (Zapotecs and Teotihuacan culture) lost most of their influence. Aztec tribes arrived in Mesoamerica around 1200 AD and quickly established dominance over the region (Beezley, 2011). The initial conflict between Toltec and Aztec civilizations defined the political climate of Central America for the next centuries. As Aztecs sacrificed a daughter of one of Toltecs’ leaders, they were forced to escape to a marshy island in the middle of a lake. To build a new city, they came up with a revolutionary technology, placing long wooden piles deep in the ground to construct a solid foundation for their buildings (The Aztecs: Engineering an empire, 2017). Due to the effective management and rapid growth of the population, they obtained control of large areas (primarily through military aggression) and created the first empire in the Americas.
There are several features that distinguish Aztecs from Maya and other Mesoamerican cultures. The Aztec empire had a centralized political system that other civilizations lacked. On the other hand, while Mayan tribes had a similar culture, Aztecs never prioritized cultural assimilation of the conquered tribes, as they exerted their dominance through the military power (Beezley, 2011). Sacrifices in the Aztec culture served different purposes, as besides pleasing the gods, they were used to intimidate the enemies. In general, the political structure of the Aztec empire bears more similarities to European and Asian empires of that period than to Mayan states.
The rule of the Aztecs ended with the European conquest of the Americas. As the strength of the Ottoman Empire largely prevented trade with the East, European countries were forced to explore other options (notes from the PowerPoint presentations). Columbus’s discovery of the Americas opened much-needed access to the new territories and resources. The aggressive expansion of the Aztecs throughout the centuries resulted in several local tribes joining Cortes in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire a few decades later (Beezley, 2011). Following the conquest, millions of indigenous Americans died of the viruses brought by the Europeans as they had no resistance to them (notes from the PowerPoint presentations). The fall of the Aztec Empire signaled the beginning of the European dominance in the Americas, as British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese colonists followed in Cortes’s footsteps.
The civilizations of pre-Columbian America shared certain traditions and patterns in architecture and art. However, the political and social structure of these societies vastly differed as they evolved throughout the millennia. Their leaders had to seek new technological solutions to environmental challenges. The end of the ice age, agricultural revolution, and the discovery of obsidian contributed significantly towards the progress of the early American civilizations. However, European conquest largely rendered their achievements useless, erasing the cultural identity of the early American states and turning them into colonies. Colonization integrated the Americas into the global economic system and marked the beginning of the new era for the human race worldwide.
References
Beezley, W. H. (2011). Mexico in World History. Oxford University Press.
The Aztecs: Engineering an empire [Video]. Web.