The Brunelleschi’s Dome in Florence: Secrets of Glory Research Paper

Introduction and Background

The period of Renaissance has occupied a significant niche in the world of arts having brought numerous masterpieces to the artistic heritage. Among a variety of prominent crafts developed in that time, architecture is the sphere which provides the most reasons for amusement and fascination. It is the grandiose structures and long-term devotion of the creators that makes people admire the masterpieces of architects which played important roles at the time of their creation and continue to be the subject of research throughout centuries. One of the most impressive pieces of art in this respect is the Brunelleschi’s Dome of the Cathedral of Florence or Santa Maria del Fiore. It has been an iconic sight of the city since the time of its construction in the 15th century. It seems that its significance was predetermined even before the inception of the project and was influenced by social and political issues of the time.

Not only the size and the exterior of the structure were impressive, but also the way Brunelleschi used to build it. His technical inventions allowed for revolutionary engineering method that did not require using any supporting armature due to the specific octagonal self-supporting design. Despite the widespread belief that Brunelleschi’s engineering ideas behind the architectural decisions were unprecedented, there are claims that he was not a pioneer in the use of a specific approach to designing the dome.

However, the contemporaries considered the design and method of construction genius and praised the author of the most outstanding building in Florence. Therefore, it is crucial to determine whether the idea was genuinely original, or it was the overlapping of social and cultural contexts that contributed to the proclamation of Brunelleschi’s dome a masterpiece.

In this paper, the answer to the question concerning the secrets of the dome’s glory will be explored from four perspectives. Firstly, the function of the dome during the Renaissance period will be analyzed concerning the political and social situation of the time. Secondly, the professional biography and the personality of Filippo Brunelleschi will be provided to understand the role of his approach in the construction of the cupola. Thirdly, the structure of the dome will be analyzed with the emphasis on the engineering behind its construction and possible structures that might have inspired Brunelleschi’s genius idea.

Finally, the sponsorship behind the dome will be researched to clarify whether it was politically-related or selfless patronage. The research paper will be constructed based on Ross King’s book “Brunelleschi’s Dome,” by Ross King “The Lives of the Artists” by Giorgio Vasari, and several scholarly articles about the cupola.

The Dome of Santa Maria Del Fiore

The cupola of the Cathedral of Florence is the greatest achievement of the early Renaissance period. This building of enormous height of more than 110 meters and magnificent beauty rises over the ancient city still impressing people with its greatness. Even now, in the time of skyscrapers and complicated technological achievements in the sphere of architecture, Brunelleschi’s masterpiece remains one of the most excellent examples of mastery.¹ It is obvious how impressive it was for its contemporaries in the 15th century. To understand the extent to which the construction of the dome was important for the citizens of Renaissance Florence, one should start with the description of the social and cultural background of the time.

The Social and Cultural Context Around the Construction

There are appropriate time and place for any event or construction, especially as grandiose as the biggest temple of a city. Florence of the 1400s was a well-developed and prosperous metropolis. By that time, it was one of the economic and cultural capitals of Europe, setting its benchmarks for others to admire. The success and wealth of the city were achieved by the ongoing work of wool artisans and merchants.

When the Umiliati monks came to the city, they started developing the business of wool industry that became the source of Florence’s wealth and economic dominance.² The best wool was brought from England, “washed in the river Arno, combed, spun into yarn, woven on wooden looms, and dyed beautiful colors.”³ These processes allowed for making the best-quality cloth in Europe, which was very expensive and gained a high level of demand in the international arena.

Besides, other spheres of the economy were undergoing a significant improvement. Vinery, livestock breeding, commerce, and other branches developed and brought Florence the reputation of a rich and influential center. Under such circumstances, at the top of its glorious development, the city faced an increase of advance. According to King, there was no such boom in the construction area in Italy since the times of the Ancient Romans.⁴

That is why significant amounts of building materials were brought to the city and used to construct the city walls as protection from invaders. Numerous cathedrals, churches, bridges, monasteries, and private homes of the wealthiest citizens appeared on the streets of Florence. The sizes, exquisite designs, expansive decorations, and materials were used for construction, thus preserving the city the image of an important cultural center of Europe.

Moreover, due to its rapid growth, Florence attracted the most outstanding craftsmen of the time. Such a shift toward the consolidation of the city’s influence on the cultural arena encouraged the city planners and patrons to establish the same image for Florence on the economic and political field. It was possible to achieve by building the largest and most impressive temple that would demonstrate the level of the metropolis’ dominance not only in Tuscany but in the whole of Italy. This role was given to the Cathedral of Florence or Santa Maria del Fiore dedicated to Saint Maria.

The Function of the Dome During the Renaissance Period

The construction of the Cathedral of Florence started in 1297 and was planned as the greatest building in the city. Although, the “original project of Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral and its magnificent dome dates back to the end of 12th century, in gothic age” as specified by Ottoni and colleagues.⁵ In the 1300s, it was aimed at impressing and demonstrating the influence and power of Florence as the dominating territory. By the beginning of the 15th century, the cathedral was finished, but it remained without a dome.

Initially, this building was intended to become the biggest in Florence, and this effect relied significantly on the dome. However, the author of the cathedral designed such a complicated project that there seemed to be no architect or engineer capable of bringing the project to life. This issue occurred due to the difficulty of the planned design of the dome the width of which was estimated approximately 45 meters.⁶ Since no known master could perform as a leading architect of the dome’s construction, the city authorities decided to start seeking one.

On August 19, 1418, there appeared an announcement about competition in Florence. The payment of 200 florins was offered to the one who “desires to make any model or design for the vaulting of the main dome of the Cathedral under construction by the Opera del Duomo.”⁷ The competition encouraged the applicants to provide their ideas in a relatively short period of one month. So the search of the perfect candidate for the role of the leading architect of the most responsible construction work of that time began.

It is interesting to analyze why the completion of the church that had been standing without a dome for more than a century suddenly became the top priority for the city authorities. For all these years, rains and winds have been destroying the interior of the cathedral because of a large hole in the place where a cupola should have been placed. According to King, the reason behind such a rush was the increasing pressure from Milan. This northern city was gaining more and more power around the beginning of the 15th century and was Florence’s main rival in the chase for the leading position.⁸

Florence risked losing its dominance to Giangaleazzo Visconti, the Duke of Milan, who had led the army in the war against the Florentines a decade before. He obtained his power in the north with the help of his autocratic leadership and now intended to occupy Florence and unite all the peninsula under his oppressive rule.⁹ Florence’s weakness was related to the epidemic of plague that took the lives of thousands of people in the city around this time. The losses in labor forces adversely impacted the economic stability of the metropolis and out its future at risk. The immediate actions serving as a safety step needed to be taken to protect the city from invaders and ensure its leading position.

Moreover, the decision to finish the cathedral was influenced by the construction of a grand gothic church in Milan. However, the Florentines employed a different style of the early Renaissance to move forward from the old gothic tradition. Such an approach added cultural weight to the dome from a long-term perspective. Thus, the cupola of Santa Maria del Fiore was expected to function as a symbol of Florence’s cultural, economic, and political dominance over Milan as its main competitor.

Filippo Brunelleschi

One of the participants of the competition was a master of many arts, including sculpture, goldsmith’s craft, architecture, and decoration, Filippo Brunelleschi. This “ill-favored in appearance” man possessed a virtue of being a person of big heart and the intellect of a genius.¹⁰ His bold and unprecedented engineering ideas were met with caution but ultimately brought the creator the glory of the author of a pure architectural masterpiece.

Brunelleschi’s Biography

Filippo Brunelleschi was born in a family of an educated and industrious people who contributed to his upbringing. His father worked as a notary and wished for the son to follow the same path in life. However, early in Filippo’s childhood, the parents noticed his ambitions to be engaged in other activities, those requiring work with different materials and intellectual efforts.¹¹

Nevertheless, the father decided that his son would need primary education in any profession he might choose and taught him letters and abacus, often being amazed by the easiness of Filippo’s learning. Being aware of the son’s passion for arts and mechanics, the father arranged Filippo’s apprentice in the goldsmith’s craft. He learned and practiced working on a different scale of details and rapidly improving until he could “mount precious stones better than the older artisans in the trade.”¹² Thus, Brunelleschi sought for a new craft to pursue.

The Craftsman’s Major Achievements

The art of sculpture became Filippo Brunelleschi’s new step in his development as a craftsman. Being in a good friendly relationship with young and Donatello, Brunelleschi exchanged the ideas and inspirations with the talented sculptor and learned a lot from him.¹³ His talent and witty mind allowed him to become one of the best in any craft he chose to learn. Therefore, he soon started practicing architecture by redecorating and repairing houses in the city. His work on the tower and house of the Petraia at Castello, the Palazzo Della Signoria and other buildings proved him to be a prominent architect.¹⁴

The following years, Brunelleschi fostered his talents related to architecture, design, and engineering. He communicated with the artisans and collected knowledge that helped him to develop his ideas. For example, in order to avoid many errors the architect made while being engaged in a project, Brunelleschi started thinking about perspective. In such a manner, he planned the work e beforehand, tried to draw scathes and plans of the buildings that ultimately allowed him to arrange the proper work on bigger buildings.

Thanks to the discovery of perspective, the craftsman could draw very detailed pictures of some significant buildings in Florence, which attracted attention to him and proclaimed him as a master of great talent. In 1401, there appeared a chance to demonstrate the mastery in sculpture, when there was announced a competition to redecorate the two bronze doors of the Church and the Baptistery of San Giovanni.¹⁵ Brunelleschi competed with Donatello and Lorenzo Ghiberti, all of whom created outstanding scenes. However, Lorenzo’s variant was recognized as the best one, and Filippo yielded the work on the doors to him because he did not want to be equal or second in his job. It was vital for him to be the best at any work in which he engaged himself.

Sources of Inspiration

After the competition with Lorenzo, Brunelleschi traveled to Rome, where he wanted to study architecture on the examples of great Roman buildings. The observation and analysis of the Roman constructions contributed to his mastery as an architect and were ultimately reflected in his work on the dome of the Cathedral of Florence. It is necessary to note that cupola as an architectural form was of a prevalent significance in the Renaissance period. The difficulty in constructing it even multiplied the greatness it demonstrated. Brunelleschi studied the grandiose buildings in Rome trying to obtain the “empiric knowledge based on the “static sense” of ancient master-builders.”¹⁶ Therefore, Filippo intended to return architecture the glory it had in the times of Ancient Romans.

There was no building or ruin in Rome that Brunelleschi did not study and analyze meticulously. However, the dome of the Roman Patheon was one of the sources of inspiration for the master due to its large size and the monumental significance it possessed.¹⁷ Similarly to the analyzing work on the most successful designs, Brunelleschi engaged in discoveries of the reasons for failures. It was important for him to find the best practical solutions avoiding making the mistakes that led to “previous collapses of similar structures.”¹⁸ Having observed and studied all types of forms and engineering designs, Brunelleschi was able to use his knowledge in practice. However, his project had to be not an ordinary one, but a prominent building of great glory.

The Cupola as an Architectural Construction

The Genius Idea

With a scope of knowledge and high ambitions, Brunelleschi returned to Florence and decided to participate in the competition in 1418. Among other contesters, he managed to interest the trustees who initiated the work on the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore with a genius idea. The main task and the most difficult challenge the architects resolving the issue with the dome encountered was related to finding a method of constructing that could succeed without using an expensive wooden frame. In that time, Florence was in no condition to spend significant sums of money on materials, especially wood.

The top priority when deciding how to vault the dome was saving finances and materials. Brunelleschi claimed that “the dome could be vaulted without using too many beams and without pillars or mounds of earth at a much lower cost than the many arches would incur.”¹⁹ Since this was what the trustees needed, they granted the brave architect with a responsibility to construct the high dome of Santa Maria del Fiore.

Analysis of the Structure of the Dome

The essence of the outstanding design decision suggested by Filippo might be understood upon the analysis of the dome’s structure. His idea utilized a method that allowed for overcoming practical obstacles apart from the financial difficulty that worried the trustees. These obstacles concerned the previously mentioned width of the dome, which was the biggest of all known domes of that time. Besides, the base of the dome began “55 meters above the ground—on top of an octagonal drum whose walls were 4.25 meters thick.”²⁰

Due to such height, it was not only difficult to lift the materials to the top but also almost impossible to construct a dome that would not collapse under its weight. That is why Brunelleschi’s bold suggestion to build the cupola as a “self-supporting structure from start to finish.”²¹ The octagonal form of the building that had to be followed in the construction of the vault determined the direction of the engineering thought.

Thus, following the initial idea of the architect, the dome consisted of two domes with a space between their surfaces. These two structures were intended to be concentric octagonal shells connected one to another with the help of 24 ribs (eight big ribs started at the bottom of each segment of the octagon, and 16 little ones connecting the sections of the dome into one central point.²² The geometry of octagon helped develop a safe plan of construction capable of maintaining the weight of the structure. Since the cupola was planned as a great masonry, it was essential to keep it from falling outward or inward. In order to ensure the stable position of the dome, it was decided to build six arches of blue-grey sandstone and secure the bricks with iron braces and chains.²³ Thus, the author’s claim was supported by practical implications, and the work could be started.

The Process of Construction

In 1420, Brunelleschi began his work on the dome. According to the results of the competition, the trustees appointed Lorenzo Ghiberti to partner with Filippo and participate in the project. Since Lorenzo was Brunelleschi’s main competitor over the years, the process of construction continued under the pressure of an interpersonal challenge. The planned works were carried out under the guidance of the architects. The platform base of the dome was built out of big blocks and was arranged in a way that allowed the dome to bare not only the weights of the dome itself but also the workmen and equipment during the following years of construction.²⁴

To accomplish the task of heavy material delivery to the top of the building, Brunelleschi invented the ingenious hoisting machine. The mechanism was created out of a long rope and a system of gears and screws that allowed it to function at three speeds with the help of oxen.²⁵ It was this mechanism that saved big sums of money and made the lifting of materials easy. This contribution was highly appraised and used for the development of other great constructions.

At the point where the dome was narrowing up to the top, new challenges occurred. It appeared that the angles between the sides of the octagon were irregular that imposed difficulty on centering the construction of the dome as it rose. However, Brunelleschi identified the inaccuracy and adjusted the design to it. He adopted “a radial method of construction … working with each pair of symmetrically opposite sides.”²⁶ Thus, by using such a technique, the architect worked not with one but with four centers, one for each pair of opposite sides of the octagon.

To prevent the narrowing part of the dome from collapsing, the idea of securing the bricks with the help of a specific method of placing occurred to Brunelleschi. It was the brick pattern that is called herringbone because of its resemblance to fishbone. According to Jones, Sereni, and Ricci, such a pattern was determined by two primary purposes. Firstly, this approach provided the support of each consecutive layer of bricks, which ensured building the dome “without full centering and scaffolding.”²⁷

Secondly, with the increasing height of the dome, its segments converged, and the herringbone pattern protected the segments from increasing incline, thus securing the stability of the structure. All these novelties and revolutionary engineering ideas became the backbone that guaranteed the successful ending of the construction in 1436 and glorified Brunelleschi as a profound architect and inventor.

Sponsorship of the Construction Project

As mentioned earlier, the success of the dome’s construction was closely connected with the political and economic future of Florence. Therefore, the importance of this structure was influenced not only by Brunelleschi’s talent but also by the burden of interests of influential people of that time. The role of patrons in Renaissance Italy was crucial in terms of their active inclusion in the creative process of the artists or architects

The Personality of Cosimo de’ Medici

The Medici family was a dynasty of influential people whose wealth and political decisions determined the course of the country’s development. In the time of Cosimo de’ Medici’s active involvement in the life of Italy, it was commonly accepted that “it was a natural behavior of a nobleman to patronize architecture.”²⁸ Thus, on the background of the dominating views of the importance to spend wealth on works of arts that could glorify their patrons, Cosimo acted accordingly.

However, Cosimo acted in contrast to the long-established tradition of patrons to donate a part of the commission on constructions and participate in the building of churches in the regions where they lived. He tended to be the only sponsor for the construction of numerous architectural projects even outside Florence.²⁹ Such actions served as a way to obtain citizens’ appraisal and gain a favorable place in social and political spheres by preserving the power of influence.

Medici’s Patronage of the Dome Construction

The construction of such a principal object as the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, especially in such decisive time for Florence could not pass by without Cosimo’s attention. At the point when Brunelleschi’s project was on the edge of a financial crisis, Cosimo de’ Medici sponsored the works.³⁰ His idea of magnificence empowered his decisions to give finances for the construction of architecture that could proclaim him as a man whose noble duty was to bless God. Such an image should have served as a way to obtain a good reputation among the citizens. While leading a calm and mostly secret life keeping away from the public eye, Cosimo actively engaged in sponsorship to guarantee a stable position in the political sphere.³¹ Being a patron of the dome, he could become the most powerful man in Florence and aim even more political influence.

Conclusion

The decision to build the dome was determined by the difficult political and economic situation in the life of Florence in the 15th century. The threat from Milan encouraged the city authorities to construct a cupola of such greatness and glory that could demonstrate the power and wealth of Florence. Even though it depended on the financial support of the Medici family, the fame of the cupola owes it to the creator. Precise planning, the invention of a complicated hoisting mechanism, a unique bricking pattern, and a system of ribs and braces securing the masonry led Brunelleschi to success. The overlapping of the historical circumstances and the talent of Brunelleschi produced an example of architectural excellence that continues to impress the generations of artisans throughout centuries.

References:

Fraser Jenkins, A. D. “Cosimo de’ Medici’s Patronage of Architecture and the Theory of Magnificence.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 33 (1970): 162-170.

Gilbert, Kelly Ann. “Medici Power and Patronage under Cosimo the Elder and Lorenzo the Magnificent.” Senior Honors Theses, Paper 103 (2005).

Jones, Barry, Andrea Sereni, and Massimo Ricci. “Building Brunelleschi’s Dome: A Practical Methodology Verified by Experiment.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 69, no. 1 (2010): 39- 61.

King, Ross. Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture. New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2013.

Ottoni, Federica, Eva Coïsson, and Carlo Blasi. “The Crack Pattern in Brunelleschi’s Dome in Florence: Damage Evolution from Historical to Modern Monitoring System Analysis.” Advanced Materials Research 133-134 (2010): 53-64.

Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Translated by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Footnotes

1. Ross King, Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2013), vi.
2. Ibid., 2.
3. Ibid., 3.
4. Ibid., 3.
5. Federica Ottoni, Eva Coïsson, and Carlo Blasi, “The Crack Pattern in Brunelleschi’s Dome in Florence: Damage Evolution from Historical to Modern Monitoring System Analysis,” Advanced Materials Research 133-134 (2010): 54.
6. Barry Jones, Andrea Sereni, and Massimo Ricci, “Building Brunelleschi’s Dome: A Practical Methodology Verified by Experiment,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 69, no. 1 (2010): 41.
7. Ross King, Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2013), 1.
8. Ibid., 16.
9. Ibid., 16-17.
10. Giorgio Vasari, The Lives of the Artists, trans. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 110.
11. Ross King, Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2013), 12-13.
12. Giorgio Vasari, The Lives of the Artists, trans. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 112.
13. Ibid., 112.
14. Ibid., 112-113.
15. Ibid., 115.
16. Federica Ottoni, Eva Coïsson, and Carlo Blasi, “The Crack Pattern in Brunelleschi’s Dome in Florence: Damage Evolution from Historical to Modern Monitoring System Analysis,” Advanced Materials Research 133-134 (2010): 53.
17. Giorgio Vasari, The Lives of the Artists, trans. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 117-118.
18. Federica Ottoni, Eva Coïsson, and Carlo Blasi, “The Crack Pattern in Brunelleschi’s Dome in Florence: Damage Evolution from Historical to Modern Monitoring System Analysis,” Advanced Materials Research 133-134 (2010): 53.
19. Giorgio Vasari, The Lives of the Artists, trans. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 122.
20. Barry Jones, Andrea Sereni, and Massimo Ricci, “Building Brunelleschi’s Dome: A Practical Methodology Verified by Experiment,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 69, no. 1 (2010): 41.
21. Ibid., 41
22. Ibid., 41.
23. Giorgio Vasari, The Lives of the Artists, trans. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 125.
24. Barry Jones, Andrea Sereni, and Massimo Ricci, “Building Brunelleschi’s Dome: A Practical Methodology Verified by Experiment,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 69, no. 1 (2010): 42.
25. Giorgio Vasari, The Lives of the Artists, trans. Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 145.
26. Barry Jones, Andrea Sereni, and Massimo Ricci, “Building Brunelleschi’s Dome: A Practical Methodology Verified by Experiment,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 69, no. 1 (2010): 44.
27. Ibid., 50.
28. A. D. Fraser Jenkins, “Cosimo de’ Medici’s Patronage of Architecture and the Theory of Magnificence,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 33 (1970): 162.
29. Ibid., 164.
30. Ross King, Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2013), 131.
31. Kelly Ann Gilbert, “Medici Power and Patronage under Cosimo the Elder and Lorenzo the Magnificent,” Senior Honors Theses, Paper 103 (2005), 9-11.