Introduction
In this thesis, I want to emphasize how Said’s concept of Orientalism works, with attention to his book and his first reviewers. In addition, I aim to address how his concept has been adjusted and expanded over the last few decades, especially since September 11th. In the second chapter, I will show how Thoreau practiced both an older orientalism aimed at valuing the Orient and a discriminatory orientalism in participating in the practices that Said identified. Finally, leaving Orientalism aside, I will add a study of resistance that can be productively compared with Said’s own research.
The Evolution and Reception of Edward Said’s Orientalism
The first chapter explores the original concept of Orientalism proposed by Edward Said in 1978. He established the concept as an exaggeration of differences with the East, promoted by Western society as part of the idea of Western superiority (Said 34). As one critic noted at the time, the book caused controversy by arguing that Orientalism, a term long used neutrally to describe academics studying the Global East, is, in practice, a form of discrimination created by Western society (Malti-Douglas 724). Winder emphasizes in a 1981 review that Said correctly shows how so-called “First World” scholars have long been jingoistic toward “Third World” countries.
Besides exposing these unfortunate practices of the West, the book also, as Ray underlined in a review, opened the East up to eastern readers, empowering them to consider their spirit and culture in a new light (434). The book also faced criticism for insufficient attention to historical reasoning, as Westerners could rely only on their own perceptions when facing the East (Meyers 1980). Beard mentioned that the author takes an impressionistic course, making the point emotionally rather than historically (2). Therefore, the book created a controversy, dividing the views of European and Eastern audiences.
The concept has been refined over the last forty-five years. At the time the book by Said was published, Asia was considered primarily in political terms; later, the concept of Orientalism acquired greater economic significance due to the Asian economic boom (McInnes 75). Whalen-Bridge notes that the term has become interdisciplinary, concerning not only postcolonial studies but also the problems of social and cultural disparities (195).
The events of 9/11 led to a new leap of discrimination, binding the concept of Orientalism and the notion of terrorism (Kumar 236). Building on findings such as those of Kumar, El-Haj showed that Said’s book could be used to forecast the conflict that had occurred and to explain the relationships between two civilizations (542). At present, the concept of Orientalism has been applied differently across Asia, including the Islamic World and Far Eastern countries (Clines 485). Therefore, the concept has evolved over the years in response to the political context.
Thoreau’s Orientalism: Appreciation or Appropriation?
Henry David Thoreau can be considered a practitioner of positive Orientalism, in contrast to the Orientalism described by Said in 1978. This is seen in a variety of scholarly commentaries. Scott underlined that his curiosity about Asia was naturalistic and cultural, which helped him introduce it to Western society (17). It is reflected in his book Walden, which focuses on the author’s spiritual experiences (Thoreau 16-19). Sarma mentioned that Thoreau was a passionate reader of Indian and Chinese philosophers (81).
Hodder described Thoreau as a highly emotional author who explored the world through philosophy and spirituality (Thoreau’s Ecstatic Witness, 116). In another publication, Hodder emphasized that Thoreau’s spirituality was grounded in genuine curiosity about Hindu religious practices (“Ex Oriente Lux,” 419). Therefore, Thoreau was one of the earliest examples of oriental explorers who had a great interest in Asia.
However, Thoreau could unintentionally lay the basis for the modern concept of Orientalism as described by Said. Not as much research has been done in this area by academics. Winslow highlighted that Thoreau’s depiction of the world portrayed Asia as different and mysterious, contrasting it with the familiar Western society (18). Friedrich noted that, despite Walden’s natural and spiritual focus, it has a more political discourse rooted in colonial thinking (47). These points make Thoreau’s Orientalism rather controversial, as he lived in a society where colonial ideas were normalized.
Conclusion
Finally, beyond Orientalism, the concepts described by Thoreau and Said can be used to understand resistance. For example, Thoreau was motivated by the attitudes toward slavery and the war between Mexico and the US to create Civil Disobedience. In the book Culture and Resistance, Said elaborates on the importance of civil resistance in terms of culture and history. Ciobanu argues that the concepts proposed by the author apply to the broader studies of imperialism and political resistance (108). Therefore, the authors offer a compelling discussion on the nature of civil resistance without regard to Orientalism.
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