Introduction
During the First World War, aviation significantly impacted the course of battles and positions on all fronts. The main features of aviation in that period were the simplicity of aircraft design and the rapid improvement of models depending on combat requirements. During the war, aviation included balloons, airships, and airplanes, and it was used to achieve three goals, namely reconnaissance, destruction of enemy aircraft, and bombing.
The use of aviation had a great influence on the development of military equipment and changed the style of warfare. Moreover, aviation has significantly increased the death rate among the military and civilian populations. Thus, the goal is to analyze the characteristics of aviation during the First World War in such states as Germany, England, and Russia.
Advantages of Aviation
One of the essential advantages of aviation was the ability to launch bombing strikes, which sometimes happened unexpectedly for the enemy. It includes the use of aviation to drop bombs from an airplane, balloon, or airship onto the ground. As a rule, strategically important objects, such as warehouses, ports, bases, or equipment, were chosen as targets. However, given the archaism of technology in the First World War, bombs often flew past the target and hit civilian objects. These could include theatres, markets, plazas, libraries, and other non-military establishments. On the one hand, this fact formulated the unprofitability of using bombing since often a large number of bombs were needed to hit the target.
On the other hand, the affected civilian objects caused not only economic damage to the enemy. It also contributed to fear, panic, and decadence among the population, which could be used to destabilize the situation. In addition, air bombardments, especially at night, caused a feeling of insecurity among the people. In other words, civilians understood that the country could not protect them, which shook their faith in victory and their mood. The air defense systems of that time, such as anti-aircraft guns and cannons, as well as floodlight systems, could not guarantee complete protection. Thus, aviation was also used to successfully pass the line of defense, which was not configured for air protection at that time.
Successful Bombing Case
One example of a successful bombing operation using aircraft was the bombing of London on September 8, 1915, carried out by Zeppelins. Until September, London was off the bombing list as there were connections at the highest levels between governments. However, when the ban was lifted, the German troops began to use aviation forces to strike actively. Despite the fact that such bombardments caused relatively minor damage, they were considered beneficial. Firstly, it inflicted a psychological attack on both the civilian population and the military combatants at the front. Moreover, to build additional lines of defense, thousands of soldiers and hundreds of pieces of equipment were pulled back from the frontier. These items included anti-aircraft guns, cannons, searchlights, and firearms.
It is also worth mentioning that the activities that were carried out as a defense against bombing also had a negative impact on both the psychological state and the work of the industry. These included, for example, blackout measures to make it harder for the pilot to see ground targets from the air. Obviously, it was impossible to work in complete darkness, and the industry’s productivity slowed down. Moreover, during the air raid, all people had to follow the shelter, which also made it impossible to work. In addition, there were many false air alarms, which negatively affected the physical and psychological state of citizens.
For the bombing of London on September 8, three airships of the German Navy were chosen, such as L-11, L-13, and L-14. These airships were from a new series, having additional equipment and developing a speed of 98 kilometers per hour. The departure took place at 2 p.m., and the airships arrived on the coast of Britain an hour ahead of schedule at 8 p.m., after which they were forced to wait for darkness in the air. Moreover, one of the airships, namely the L-11, interrupted the flight due to a malfunction and returned to the base. The remaining two vehicles headed towards London, but the L-14 also experienced a malfunction and, having dropped the bombs earlier, returned to base. The last of the remaining airships reached London with 55 incendiary bombs, 14 100 kg bombs, and one 300 kg explosive bomb. The latter was a technological novelty for the German fleet and was first used in this raid.
The airship approached the city from the least expected side, namely, from the North, in addition, the observation posts of Britain did not determine the pilot’s approach to the coast and flight over the country’s territory. Moreover, there was no blackout, and the pilot was able to navigate through brightly illuminated objects and riverbeds easily. Due to this, the pilot even spent some time choosing the most critical objects in order to inflict maximum damage.
Only after dropping the first bombs on the warehouses in the North of the city the British army realized that they were under attack and activated the anti-aircraft searchlights. Heavy bombs were dropped on the National Bank, however, due to a miss, they hit residential houses and killed several civilians. After that, when the airship came under a spotlight beam, the fire from anti-aircraft guns was opened, and it was decided to drop all the bombs and rise to a height of 3000 meters. After a 10-hour flight over the sea, the crew successfully returned to base.
The consequences of the attack were negative for both the military and civilians in Britain. It turned out that the airplanes that were lifted into the air after the attack were not effective against airships. The fire of anti-aircraft guns in the dark did not damage the Zeppelin since it was at a high altitude. In addition, the personnel operating the searchlights were incorrectly trained and could not adequately keep the target in sight. The attack sowed fear among the civilian population, as a surprise strike posed a threat at any moment. Residents felt unprotected due to the lack of an adequate warning and air defense system. Finally, blackout measures were not introduced adequately at night, which contributed to easy target selection and pilot orientation.
German Aviation
At the start of the First World War, German aviation was the second largest in the world. The aviation fleet included about 220-230 aircraft used for various purposes. However, most of them were outdated models of the Taube type, which were used more as vehicles. At that time, aircraft could carry 2-3 people, which was effective due to the high speed. Germany is one of the first countries to assess the impact of aviation on the ground situation on the battlefield. Based on this, they tried to secure air superiority on all fronts through the introduction of technological innovations. In a certain period from 1915 to 1916, Germany ensured air superiority in almost all directions.
As it has been already mentioned, Germany devoted considerable influence to the long-range bombardment of the rear of the enemy, using rigid airships. Moreover, the German army became the first in the world to use strikes against the strategic rear of the enemy, including distant factories, ports, warehouses, and bases. Since 1914, airships and then multi-engine bombers launched regular attacks on the strategic rear of Russia, Great Britain, and France. During the war, more than 100 Zeppelin and Schütte-Lanz-type rigid airships were built and used for attacks. Before the war, Germany planned to use airships mainly for reconnaissance, but it turned out that they were too vulnerable during the daytime. Then it was decided to use airships for the long-range bombing of Entente rear cities such as London, Warsaw, and Paris. The air defense and industry of the Entente were not ready for this, which led to the need to reorganize the defense.
The First World War was the period of the birth of the widespread use of aviation, the division of aircraft into classes, and such a term as ace pilot. An ace pilot was considered a person who destroyed many enemy aircraft in duels. In Germany, about 370 pilots were able to shoot down five or more enemy aircraft. Moreover, the German pilot became the only fighter in the world who became an ace in the first and second world wars. Pilot training took place in sports schools, where future aviators were taught the necessary air combat techniques. In addition, the theoretical part was introduced, where the combat strategies, the basics of bombing, and other essential points were explained to the pilots.
Air combat involving German aircraft included mid-air clashes using the pilot’s weapons. Thus, when meeting with an enemy aircraft, the pilots usually exchanged shots from carbines, and sometimes knives were attached to the aircraft to damage the enemy fuselage. German airships gave Germany a significant advantage up to the point where incendiary bullets were developed. With their help, one had the opportunity to set fire to the hydrogen coming out of the holes, which led to the combustion of the entire apparatus. In addition, knives were attached to the hulls of the aircraft, with the help of which the pilots cut through the slow airships. Soon, the first German fighter with a machine gun was produced, which had a synchronizer for firing through the propeller screw. In other words, the bullets flew out between rotations of the screw, which gave a significant advantage on the battlefield.
The task of a fighter pilot with mounted machine guns in air combat was to take a suitable position to inflict damage on the enemy aircraft. The winner was the one who could appropriately use the speed of the aircraft, air currents, and the physical characteristics of the flight to take a position. Due to the fact that the machine guns did not have turrets for rotation, as on some airships, it was necessary to adjust the flight path. In addition, it was essential to take into account the ballistics of the bullet flight, the angle of inclination, and other characteristics. For this, the sight’s front was located higher than the machine gun, making it possible to hit the target. After an enemy aircraft was in the front sight, the fire was opened that could damage the wings, the engine, or the enemy pilot himself.
England Aviation
The British aviation fleet was inferior to some countries, however, it had some technological developments. It is worth noting that Britain became the first country to establish its air force as a separate branch of the military. In other words, the RAF, or royal air force, was not subordinate to the army or navy, which allowed them to make more efficient decisions and plan independent operations. In 1909, Britain became interested in developing the use of aviation for military purposes, and in 1912 an experimental fighter aircraft armed with a machine gun was developed. At the beginning of the First World War, the British aviation fleet consisted of 60 aircraft, but by 1918 it included 150 squadrons and 3300 airplanes, becoming the largest in the world at that time. During the war, Britain’s air force carried out various missions, including reconnaissance, bombing, and spying.
The pilots of the British Air Force were pioneers in many aspects of the use of the air force. Thus, aerial photography was involved as part of the reconnaissance department for the first time. To do this, high-quality cameras at that time were attached to the aircraft’s fuselage, which took pictures of strategic enemy objects. Photos made it possible to create a complete picture of the structure of enemy troops and deliver accurate strikes. Aerial photography included images of enemy troops, equipment, bases, warehouses, and other vital objects. Moreover, British pilots were the first to use fire on enemy positions in support of ground troops. The latter was highly effective since it acted as a psychological pressure when enemy forces were attacked from the ground and air.
Moreover, Britain was the only country other than Germany that actively developed a fleet of rigid and soft airships. It is worth noting that the first rigid airship in Britain was built back in 1912, but due to unsuccessful testing, it was never used in the First World War. During the fighting, a significant number of airships of many types were built in Britain. However, for some reasons, such as technical problems during testing and economic aspects, their use has been limited. Thus, their military service began only in 1918, when other countries used airships for a long period. However, the airships were used only for anti-submarine patrols and had only one combat encounter. At the same time, soft airships, of which there were 50 in Britain by 1918, were actively used against German submarines, where they were successful.
British aviation was actively used as a corrective artillery, for which it was necessary to fly around enemy positions. Thus, pilots were increasingly involved in combat, which articulated the need for skill development. Therefore, flying schools were created, where, similarly to the German pilots, the English ones received the necessary information and training. Practical training included reconnaissance skills in the early stages of the war and, later, air combat skills. Theoretical training gave the pilots the necessary information about combat, bombing, reconnaissance, and assault on enemy positions.
Moreover, Britain extensively used aircraft for various types of reconnaissance activities. The most effective form was aerial photography, which began to be used in 1914. However, only in 1915, it became effective as, before that, images obtained from the planes could not be fully informative and used for combat purposes. By 1918, filming could already be done from a height of 5,000 meters, and in such pictures, more than 3,000 human figures could be distinguished. Accordingly, aerial reconnaissance could provide detailed information about the enemy’s strategic targets. These included warehouses and one could sometimes determine the quantity and contents of a building on photographs. In addition, it was possible to take detailed pictures of enemy positions, the number of troops, the location of equipment, etc.
Russian Aviation
At the time of the declaration of war, the Imperial Russian Air Force was the largest in the world. It included 263 airplanes and 14 airships in 39 aviation units. As in all other armies of the world, Russian aircraft were not armed since, at that time, only developments were underway to install weapons on the fuselage. Pilots leaving for the flight had only personal weapons, such as pistols, revolvers, and others. Moreover, a severe shortcoming was the personnel problem since the fleet had only 129 qualified pilots. The central part of the aircraft fleet at the beginning of the war was the Nieuport, which had engines with a capacity of 70 horsepower. However, the material part at that time was significantly worn out, and planes that had served for two years were sent into battle. Moreover, in some cases, fatal crashes have occurred due to sending aircraft with the wrong design, namely a negative angle of attack.
At first, aviation was used only for reconnaissance and artillery fire adjustment. However, the pilots soon began to engage in aerial combat using different tactics and strategies. Basically, the pilots leaving for the flight were armed with German Mausers. During the First World War, only close air combat took place due to the short-range weapons on aircraft. The machine guns mounted on the sides contributed to the fact that the plane had to approach a distance close to the enemy to inflict damage. To do this, it was necessary to perform a large number of maneuvers and take into account many factors, such as the speed of the aircraft, the angle of inclination, and some physical characteristics.
From the aviation fleet of Russia during the First World War, it is worth highlighting the four-engine all-wood biplane Ilya Muromets. This machine sets a number of records in terms of carrying capacity, number of passengers, time, and maximum flight altitude. They were used mainly for bombing, during which heavy bombs were dropped, and in 1915 an experimental drop of the largest at that time, 410 kilograms bomb, was made. This device was effective in combat use as it had a larger carrying capacity and flight altitude compared to others. In addition, due to the design, the pilots had a more convenient view, which made it possible to detect the enemy early and carry out suitable maneuvers.
However, significant development of the aviation fleet was hindered by weak materiel. Primarily, it was formulated by the need to deliver components from abroad. The shortage was especially problematic in the aspect of aircraft engines since, at that time, their production in Russia was practically non-existent. Because of this, in 1915, many aviation units became worn out and unusable, which led to the need for reorganization and retraining. All this happened chaotically, interspersed with training in the use of captured aircraft. Thus, the aviation component could not use its full potential and remained not at such a developed level as in other countries.
Speaking of pilots, as already indicated, there was a significant shortage of personnel. However, it is worth noting that among the qualified pilots, there were aces who shot down five or more enemy aircraft. Among this, it is worth mentioning the ramming of the pilot Nesterov when an enemy aircraft was damaged by the plane. However, due to the damage received, Nesterov’s plane could not continue the flight, and both pilots died. Soon, the ram was used by the second pilot Kazakov, however, in this case, the pilot who used the ram survived. The ram was made by hitting the wheels on the upper plane of the enemy aircraft, but due to the collision, Kazakov’s aircraft also began to lose altitude and speed. The landing was hard, and the plane rolled over, but the pilot Kazakov was not injured. The enemy plane was completely destroyed and unfit for flight, and the pilot died.
Impact on Death Toll
One may notice how the evolution of aircraft and air combat took place during the First World War. It can be divided into several stages, and in the first stage, the pilots try to use personal weapons during air combat. It quickly became apparent that this tactic was not effective, and the first developments of installing weapons on aircraft began. Germany gained air superiority in 1915 after the introduction of machine guns with synchronizers, which made it possible to fire without touching the propellers. The high rate of fire and damage contributed to the rapid and effective destruction of enemy aircraft and ground troops, which increased the death toll.
The Entente responded by developing light and agile biplanes with machine guns mounted on the upper wing. For a time, Entente aviation gained superiority, but soon the evolution of German fighters took place. The lighter and more streamlined fuselage of the German vehicles made it possible to perform maneuvers to take a more advantageous position, and Entente began to suffer significant losses. Obviously, it was accompanied by an increase in the death toll since there were many deaths in air battles.
Conclusion
To conclude, the First World War was the period of the birth of the widespread use of aviation and the emergence of air combat. It impacted the death toll as mass bombing, and the evolution of aircraft increased the number of victims. In addition, aviation was an effective way to defeat ground targets and formulate a psychological attack. The inhabitants of the cities under bombardment had a constant feeling of fear and insecurity, and persistent air alarms interfered with industry. Aviation also made it possible to conduct effective reconnaissance, for example, by using high-quality cameras. During the war years, aircrafts changed significantly, which was formulated by combat missions. From unarmed fragile vehicles, they turned into fast fighters armed with machine guns that could perform complex maneuvers and hit targets.
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