Introduction
Written by William Cronon, Changes of Lives regards the topic of the ecological history of the New England landscape during the colonist period. The author concentrates on the ecological history of this region and presents the opinion that the New England landscape was predominantly formed in the 17-18th centuries (Cronon 2003). He highlights that while exploring the changes of the ground, it is possible to reveal some details about the human activity (Cronon 2003). Despite a widely-spread point of view that people and their activity has a significant influence on the land formation and surrounding environment, William Cronon promotes a new position (Cronon 2003). The author claims that comparing to the consequences of people’s lifestyle, non-human nature has no less considerable impact on general human activity.
The Impact of Natural Conditions on Routine
First of all, it is essential to mark that during the colonist period, when Europeans arrived in New England, they understood that the land in this region is full of different profits. In hopes of becoming richer and more prosperous, more Europeans were motivated to move to this area. The land of New England was full of various commodities, and it was diverse in the context of its biological content. In addition, it should be mentioned that it was abundant and fertile (Cronon 2003). A wide range of animal species resided there, as well as rich forests, which were a part of its environment (Cronon 2003). Therefore, people had excellent conditions for successful hunting and agriculture. In addition, all the commodities given by nature contributed to the development of trade and economics during the colonial period.
However, the general climate was different from the European one. Previously, many thousand years before the arrival of Europeans, this area was referred to as the glacial tundra. By the time when the colonists appeared, the climate had become significantly milder, though winters were still colder than in Europe. The contrast between summer and winter was more considerable, and the guests were not prepared for this fact (Cronon 2003). For this reason, a great number of colonists starved due to their unawareness of the climate differences (Cronon 2003). They had to change their habitual routine in order to get used to these specialties, which were uncommon in Europe.
As for native residents, they had to adjust to the weather conditions too. All their activity was influenced by the cycle of seasons and the specialties of the climate zone. They had to be active and mobile due to the necessity to change the locations of their villages regularly (Cronon 2003). The choice of location was reasoned by the time of the year. Furthermore, they stuck to different activities in accordance with a particular season. For instance, northern native communities adhered to fishing in springs and summers. They also gathered berries in summers, while in winter, they preferred to stuck to hunting on mammals, such as bears, beaver, and others (Cronon 2003). The activity of the Southern residents was different to some extent, as they lived in a warmer climate. They practiced agriculture, though they had to change the locations of their plantations on a regular basis in order to prevent soil exhaustion (Cronon 2003). Thus, the climate and its specialties are used to shape the activity of people considerably in the context of their routine. They have to adjust to the contrast of winters and summers and make use of natural resources.
The Local Environment and Social, Political, and Economic Contexts
Moreover, William Cronon pays attention to the influence of the local environment on the socio-political systems of Native and European communities. The author clarifies: “In one sense, economy […] becomes a subset of ecology” (Cronon 2003, 87). Therefore, the ecological condition had a comprehensive impact on three major spheres of life, which are politics, economy, and social development. An illustrative example of this thesis could be the fact due to severe and cold winter, residents were in need of warm clothing. In case there was a great number of beavers this year, people stuck to wearing the skin of this animal during cold periods. Furthermore, when Europeans entered the continent, they needed warm clothing too. Consequently, Native communities adhered to fur trade with them.
Although it appeared to be a revolution in Indian economics, it also led to negative consequences. Beavers became extinct in considerable parts of Northern America, which prompted the residents to find another way of creating warm clothing. Thus, the author concludes that beaver and other animal extinction were among the negative and destructive consequences of colonization: “the real losers were the Indians, whose earlier way of life was encountering increasing ecological constraints” (Cronon 2003, 96). This example demonstrated the mutual influence of humans and ecology. The results of residents’ activity altered the variety of wildlife to some extent, while animals shaped the economic and social development during this period.
Diseases
Another illustration of the non-human nature affecting people regards the story of European diseases brought to America. In general, the reason for virus or inflection outbreak is natural phenomena, which changes the social life of communities to a large extent. Europeans, who arrived in New England, had immunity for the diseases, which were widely spread in their area. However, the organisms of native residents did not get used to them (Cronon 2003). As a result, a significant number of people were killed by virus and inflection pandemics brought from Europe (Cronon 2003). In this context, it should be noted that although this type of death refers to the natural one, the pandemic was impossible without the interaction between Europeans and Native people (Cronon 2003). In addition, the impact of diseases on Native communities should not be underestimated, as it shaped social life considerably. In this case, the effect of nature on human activity is evident, though it was impossible without the participation of people. This fact also depicts the mutual impact of non-human factors and human activity.
Conclusion
Therefore, William Cronon highlights that environmental history is closely connected to the history of social development, and they complement each other. In addition, he proves that essential figures on the general history may be revealed by paying attention to the ecology of the region. The author is willing to demonstrate that during the entire history of humanity, people have been shaping the environment they reside, as well as the natural condition have had a significant impact on their lifestyle, social, economic, and political development. Consequently, it is impossible to explore them separately, as they contribute to understanding each other. Moreover, William Cronon attempts to advance the thesis that human and ecological history are so closely linked that it is appropriate to study them in the complex. Apart from the aforementioned thesis, the author marks that it is essential not to forget that they present different fields. Thus, showing the importance of applying both environmental and habitual human histories in complex, he also takes into consideration that they provide a limited piece of information.
As it has been described earlier, these fields complement each other and contribute to creating a comprehensive picture of the past events. William Cronon is willing to draw attention to the fact that historians cover all the human side of the colonization process, and he is determined to provide an in-depth insight into the ecological history of this period. He states:
“My thesis is simple: the shift from Indian to European dominance in New England entailed important changes—well known to historians—in the ways these peoples organized their lives, but it also involved fundamental reorganizations—less well known to historians—in the region’s plant and animal communities” (Cronon 2003, 101).
Therefore, it can be concluded that the impact of non-human nature on human activity is evident, and it shaped the lifestyle of residents to a large extent. People had to calculate their activities in accordance with the time of the year and make use of natural resources in case it was possible. The environmental conditions had a significant influence on the political, social, and economic development of the society, and the amenities given by nature may determine the trade. In addition, people have to encounter pandemic outbreaks and cope with their negative consequences. Thus, it is essential to mention that the influence of the environment and human activity is mutual.
Reference
Cronon, William. 2003. Changes in the land: Indians, colonists, and the ecology of New England (revised edition). New York: Hill & Wang.