Introduction
The play All’s Well That Ends Well by William Shakespeare is a wonderful juxtaposition of John Stuart Mill’s Act Utilitarianism and the social contract theory by Hobbes. The main aspects of these two theories are reflected in the attributes of characters like Helena and Bertram. While Helena represented the lower class of the society and believed in the Utilitarianism values to the road of success, Bertram was much inclined towards the elements of social contract theory and its application.
Act Utilitarianism and Helena
John Stuart Mill’s Act Utilitarianism represents all ethical theories where the goal is the maximization of some measure of goodness. These are outcome-oriented ethics where goodness is measured by its results. In other words, Utilitarianism is a doctrine that confirms whether or not actions have been beneficial to a large group, once applied. It can be stated that identification of criminal before the crime is committed is a part of Act Utilitarianism in the sense that the assumption of a crime is presumably error-free. This method is utilized in subculture identification in the context of criminal justice. A violent subculture is a subculture in a location that teaches its members and others to adapt to the problems of life through violent methods. These subcultures stress violence as it settles disputes and raises a group member’s prestige in the subculture. Violence shows dominance and power. One of the reasons for violent subcultures is the illegitimate and legitimate opportunity structure. The legitimate opportunity structure provides individuals with the means of obtaining status and success in society through appropriate channels such as education and hard work. (Williamson, 97-107) While this structure is ideal, it is not available for all individuals in society, especially those in violent subcultures, due to poor education, poverty, and other societal problems. This is the context of Helena and her persuasion for Bertram is the end goal of her life and she could undertake any method to reach her goal.
Her position in society is conveyed by his dialogue:
“The Count Rousillon cannot be my brother:
I am from humble, he from the honored name;
No note upon my parents, his all noble:
My master, my dear lord he is; and I
His servant lives, and will his vassal die:
He must not be my brother.” (Shakespeare, 1)
However, she must take any means possible to marry him and that includes fraud. Similarly, some of the positive ways that the Mill’s Act Utilitarianism theory has benefited criminology has been through the development of new theories that do not discriminate against others and do not support lawful inhumane behaviors. Another positive benefit has been the development of a variety of social programs to benefits criminals. These social programs are designed to intervene before an individual develops deviant behaviors that would make him a criminal and to rehabilitate those criminals who have already participated in deviant behaviors. By creating more social programs, society is saying that there is hope for criminals. They are not doomed to be labeled criminals forever. With the proper education and rehabilitation and job training, a criminal can leave the judicial system for a final time and be a productive member of society. (Habermas, 122) Those programs that are aimed at preventing a person from becoming a criminal work at teaching individuals what kinds of deviant behaviors are unacceptable, and giving them resources to use in situations in which they would most likely turn to deviant behaviors as a way to solve a problem thus the acts of Helena can be justified.
On the other hand, the Act Utilitarianism theory also has had a somewhat negative effect on our society. People still view those who have participated in deviant behaviors as criminals, and people on an individual basis do discriminate against them. (Williamson, 97-107) Most criminals are required to report their past deviant behavior on job applications, and in the United States, sex offenders are required to register themselves and their residence with the state and inform the state if they move. This information is then published on the internet, making it accessible to anyone. This kind of labeling is detrimental to an individual who is trying to overcome his or her past but is continually stigmatized by the views others place upon them because of their previous actions. Most likely labeling them will lead to further deviant behaviors. (Habermas, 134) However, from Helena’s point of view, she was justified as there was this promise,
“Helen, you might be my daughter-in-law:
God shield you mean it not! daughter and mother
So strive upon your pulse. What, pale again?
My fear hath catch’d your fondness: now I see
The mystery of your loneliness, and find
Your salt tears’ head: now to all sense ’tis gross
You love my son; invention is ashamed” (Shakespeare, 1)
Social contact theory and Bertram
Bertram was completely reluctant about marrying Helena and the main reason was her low birth. The impossible condition:
“When thou canst get the ring upon my finger which
never shall come off, and show me a child begotten
of thy body that I am father to, then call me
husband: but in such a ‘then’ I write a ‘never.’
This is a dreadful sentence.” (Shakespeare, 1)
This was enough to prove this intention. The aspect of social contract theory based on a convincing justification for political authority can be stated as an orientation. Here it is has been observed that people will respect the fact that other may have different perspective and opinions. In this stage, the choices made by each individual are not judged as correct or wrong. Here the rules and regulations, as well as the law, are social guidelines rather than strict dictums. Here is what is called democracy. (Hobbes, 25)
Hobbes believed that man as an individual or community cannot be trusted and thus should be kept on constant vigil. He said these concerning his Social Contract. His point in this statement is that everyone must take their steps one at a time. Everything should be done carefully at the right time and in the right places so that it will be meaningful and productive. His writings made a divergence in different parts of the world. He became popular and famous with the help of these writings. After all, logic and rationality was not the only answer to living a better life. There is something better from thinking and reasoning. With these lines, there is a realization about the effects of his situation. The philosopher witnessed his journey and this journey made him believed that living is not always a form of reasoning and logic and thus it is important to base on political authority. As it is, sometimes, as humans we need to rest our minds for more important things to think of. To provide this opportunity it is necessary to possess a convincing political authority. (Hobbes, 167)
Hobbes had noticed a lot of fundamental differences between human nature and society just as in the case of Helena and Bertram. He believed that humans were better when an individual is in a state of nature. It is the common state of all the other animals and is the condition humans were in long before the beginning of society and civilization itself. The idea of his has often been led to assigning the use of noble savage to him. He, however never used this expression himself and it does not properly present his thinking for the natural goodness of all humankind. His idea concerning natural goodness is complicated and thus, very easily misunderstood.
An informal reading of his work suggests that his ideas do not simply mean that humans in this state of nature always act morally. On the contrary, terms, like wickedness or justice, are merely not applicable to pre-political societies. Humans, there can behave like a ferocious animals. They are nice since they are self-contained and are, thus, are not the focal point to the frailties of the political society. Hobbes viewed society as an artificial entity and thought that the growth of any society, mainly the development of public interdependence, is unfavorable for the welfare of humans and thus there was a constant need for a vigil in the form of political authority. (Hobbes, 39) Thus, the approach of Bertram and Helena fits the conditions of the theory quite well.
However, he realizes that although the power of human love is a driving force, it was not enough to resolve the various social problems and ills. The power of human love could be applied to stop conflicts between individuals but not for the whole nation or the racial groups. Similarly, the goodness of humankind is like the goodness of the animals and not of their virtue, which has been mentioned in The Social Contract. A very extraordinary change in man is produced in the passage, which is from the state of nature to the civil state. Here justice has been substituted for instinct in man’s conduct and his actions have been given morality, which they formally lacked. He also instead of listening only to his inclinations consults his reasoning power. Even though being in this state man is deprived of certain advantages he earlier had from nature, he gains a lot, more which develops and stimulates his faculties. His ideas are extended, his feelings are dignified and his entire soul is lifted. (Rosenfeld, 291-319) This was the justification for Bertram and Helena in the end.
However, the advancements in the various fields of knowledge have made the governments more and more powerful letting them squash a person’s liberty. In his text, Hobbes creates concepts of equality and personal liberty. He believed, to obey the natural state of man and for the total survival of a state, we continuously need to change our ideas of equality. Poor representation of some citizens, in the interest of the state, is clearly shown as an exit way for leaving the society. This was Hobbes’ political way to stabilize the inconsistent relations in the self-interest of the people and for the expansion of political freedom. When the minorities leave a state, its survival and the various reasons for creating conflict forever remain unchecked.
In his work, he also pays a lot of attention to shifting individual rights onto the formation of the state. When the state has been created, it should be due to the realization that the different elements humans cannot handle on their own can be handled better by an added centralized power, which is the state. However, Hobbes also believed that the state could fail humans at certain times and it should never enjoy an unequal share of power in comparison to the humans in the previous state of nature. If humans gave up their liberty then it would mean that they are giving up their ability to negotiate with other members of the state. This would be like slavery. (Mclean, 339-351) Thus, there were no alternatives for the two characters of the story and they can be analyzed and evaluated in the light of this principle.
Conclusion
There is also a realization of the fact that life is what we make it. There is no such thing as a deeper explanation of how man lived and survived during his lifetime. There mere fact of living is that you must live your life to the fullest. All of us need our minds to decide on how our future will be. However, certain things in life sometimes do not need any logician, mathematician, or reasoning aspect of our minds – we just need to take the risk and try to take all the opportunities no matter how hard or risky it will be. The most important thing that we should remember was faith. Faith will bring us to our final destination no matter how good or bad it will be it will always be our destiny. This would become a strong force in changing the way of thinking of the people. In this context, it is logical to believe that the basis of a convincing justification for political authority is becoming weak. However, there should be situations where the individualistic approach of a human being should be respected and valued and this can be termed as one such rare occasion where Hobbes allowed independence to the population without the vigil of a system that is based on a convincing justification for political authority. (Hobbes, 187)
However, the theorist builds upon notions of personal liberty and equality discussed in previous writings by Hobbes. Yet for Hobbes, there is less flexibility given for maintaining a state of imperfect equality as in the case of Mill. Following such a belief, the complete survival of a state requires absolute and continuously changing notions of equality, without which a mass exodus from the state might occur. Those citizens who are ill-represented by the interests of other citizens in a state are given a clear exit path for leaving society, one that is encouraged by the state as a whole. This becomes a practical way for Hobbes to balance the conflicting relations of multiple self-interests and stagnation of expanded political freedoms. With the minority leaving the state, its existence and reasons for conflict are left unchecked. Hobbes’s beliefs avoid a much larger revolution by the lower class of humankind. Hobbes attempts to stave off the downfall of capitalism, which inevitably leads to a Marxist view of society and Mill’s analysis of the human goal of success. (Mclean, 339-351) Thus it is clear that Bertram and Helena were both induced by the two theories and in the end, justifications could be found through these theories when these theories were applied to their approaches.
Works Cited
Habermas, James. Ethics, Politics and History, from an interview conducted by Jean-Marc Ferry in Philosophy and Social Criticism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1990.
Hobbes, Thomas; Leviathan; 1651. London: Hackett Publishing,1994.
Mclean, Iain. ‘The Social Contract In Leviathan And The Prisoner’s Dilemma Supergame’. Political Studies, 29.3, (1986): 339-351.
Rosenfeld, Michel. ‘A Pluralist Critique of Contractarian Proceduralism’. Ratio Juris 11.4 (1998): 291-319.
Shakespeare, William. ‘All’s Well That Ends Well’. Moby Lexical Project. 1998. University of Virginia Library. 2009. Web.
Williamson, Oliver E. “Opportunism and its critics”. Managerial and Decision Economics 14.2, (1993): 97-107.