Who Deserves the Label “Tyrant”: Caligula or Domitian? Essay

Introduction

A tyrant refers to a harsh and oppressive leader with no legal restraint. Determining the cruellest emperor between Caligula and Domitian is crucial because both rulers are renowned for oppressive regimes that led to crises and turmoil in Rome. As a result, both leaders are among the worst emperors in the world. Therefore, it is crucial to examine the extent of their cruelty to establish who between the two best deserves the label of a tyrant. The major problem in discussing this topic is that it is difficult to clearly distinguish who had a harsher regime between Domitian and Caligula. This is because both rulers are renowned for their brutality during their reigns. Hence, it is challenging to pinpoint whose actions were more tyrannical compared to the others. Caligula better deserves the label of a tyrant because his executions, abuse of power, and perception of being supreme were more intense compared to Domitian’s.

Cruel Leadership Characterised by Brutal Execution

Caligula’s dynasty is perceived as one of the harshest regimes in history. Gaius Caesar Germanicus (Caligula) was the third Roman emperor who ruled from 37 to 41 A.D. He is one of the cruellest and unpredictable leaders in history. ¹During his reign, he had absolute power over the region and did not involve the Senate in his decisions. He had little or no regard for the Senate, most of whom became audiences in his public theatrics. ²For example, some studies show that he once threatened to make his horse a consul. Although many historians presume that he wanted to give the horse a position in the Senate, it can be viewed as a mere commentary to show his low opinion of the Senate. ³His cruel leadership was evident because, during his ascension to power, he ordered a mass human ritual that involved the slaughter of slaves and criminals all over the temples and arenas of the city. The massive bloodshed of oppressed citizens such as criminals and slaves depicts Caligula as a tyrant.

Caligula ordered the public executions of his opponents, particularly senators and philosophers. In this case, following the death of Drusilla, his sister, Caligula, ordered that statues and temples be erected in her honour. ⁴Research indicates that Caligula and Drusilla were in an incestuous relationship which may explain why Caligula wanted Drusilla to be perceived as god panthea. However, some senators and philosophers opposed the decree because only impeccable emperors, such as Augustus, deserved to become gods. Nonetheless, Caligula had their tongues pulled out, and they were also crucified upside down and burned alive. The executions also targeted the magicians and other religious sects who condemned his incestuous acts. Additionally, all other senators who conflicted with his policies were publicly executed. Similarly, according to Rohmann (2019), ‘Caligula forced parents to attend the execution of their own children.’⁵ As a leader, Caligula was also renowned for his lust. ⁶He opened a brothel in the palace where he slept with whoever pleased him, including the wives of senators and other government officials. Caligula would then report about the wives’ performances to their husbands.

Caligula resumed the treason trials that Tiberius had earlier initiated. The public arenas were turned into execution stages for his allies and rivals. ⁷He turned murder into a sport for entertaining the public. Caligula began targeting people at random who would be executed publicly, whether senators, criminals, high-ranking officials, or army commanders. He enjoyed witnessing the suffering of the people being executed. ⁸In this case, Suetonius, Caligula’s biographer, indicated that Caligula showed the keenest interest in observing the torment and anguish of the people being tortured to death. Worse still, he confiscated the property of the people who were executed, particularly those from the leading Roman families. His greed for wealth led to the slaughter of many wealthy families while he got to inherit all their wealth. These executions caused fear and panic among all citizens, but Caligula was not bothered; he wanted people to fear him. Therefore, Caligula’s cruelty was illustrated by his unquenchable need to witness the torture and murder of other people.

Domitian’s rule over Rome was associated with intense ruthlessness and atrocities. He governed Rome from 81 A.D to 96 A.D following the demise of his brother Titus Domitianus. Jones (1993) reveals that ‘power was concentrated at the imperial court, not in the Senate-house.’⁹ Domitian’s court not only passed judgement but was also responsible for executing the law, thus curtailing the powers of the Senate. He also ousted the Senate members whom he felt were unworthy. ¹⁰His reign was characterised by immense paranoia and fear of assassination, making him a harsh leader. He hired informants to report any incidences of rebel or plots to oust him. This portrays Domitian as a tyrant who had absolute and unrestrained power over Rome and ruled based on his terms instead of following the existing law.

Domitian’s cruelty was also demonstrated by the execution of imperial officials and senators who opposed his regulations. ¹¹After the executions, he would seize the wealth of the affluent Roman families and senators to fund his extravagant lifestyle. He also ordered the murders of vestal virgins and incorporated more torturous punishments for his opponents. Domitian’s dynasty greatly limited the freedom of speech, and he exiled all philosophers from Rome and Italy in 93 A.D. ¹²Several people were executed due to violating the speech regulations. This proves that Domitian was a tyrant who restricted his citizen’s freedom of speech, making them unable to express themselves for fear of being executed.

By comparing the tyrannical acts exhibited by Caligula and Domitian, it is apparent that Caligula was harsher compared to Domitian. ¹³In this case, Domitian’s paranoia may have driven him to execute members of the Senate and limit the freedom of speech for fear of assassination. Additionally, Domitian’s ordered the killing of vestal virgins to preserve the morality of the society. In contrast, Caligula’s executions did not only involve his opponents but also other citizens like criminals and slaves. Caligula executed people for entertainment and enjoyed witnessing the torture and suffering of people. He also organised executions publicly so that the people in Rome could fear him. Caligula also targeted wealthy families for execution to inherit their property. Thus, by examining the cruel acts of both emperors, Caligula’s deeds are harsher and severe than those of Domitian.

Abuse of Power for Personal Gain

Caligula used the Roman treasury to fund his extravagant lifestyle. After becoming an emperor, he realised that Tiberius had accumulated a lot of money before his death. ¹⁴Consequently, he spent a lot of resources on vanity projects such as renovating the arena for gladiator shows and organising lavish events like boxing matches, plays, and chariot races. He also constructed an amphitheatre in the palace, where he hired professional studs for entertaining the public. As a result, he plundered the region’s economy in funding his extravagant lifestyle. Due to his lavish lifestyle, the treasury funds were soon depleted, necessitating increasing taxes to maintain his lifestyle. This proves that Caligula did not care about the prosperity of the Romans but was only interested in accumulating money to cater to his profligate life.

Caligula waged meaningless wars to achieve a sense of military glory. He wanted to be viewed as a militant leader like his predecessors especially, Augustus. Though he annexed Mauritania, he engaged in numerous unsuccessful quests to conquer Germany and Britain. The expeditions were aimed at helping him become the most powerful emperor by conquering these northern regions. ¹⁵When he led an invasion against Britain, he changed his mind and ordered the soldiers to gather seashells to be exhibited back in Rome. Hence, waging war using public resources to achieve individual gains depicts Caligula as a tyrant. Unlike other leaders, he was not interested in expanding his territory but, most importantly, in recognition.

Domitian lived an extravagant life characterised by games, such as chariot races. ¹⁶He also engaged in several military expeditions, most of which were unsuccessful. His reign was linked with the misappropriation of funds resulting in financial stress to the city. However, he appointed government officials to analyse the finance usage by all provinces and prosecute those found guilty of looting the funds. ¹⁷Despite the financial crises, his reign was associated with multiple social improvements such as access to water, land entitlement, and a public building program, among others. Although Domitian was a harsh ruler who lived extravagantly, he still cared for the Roman people.

It is evident that both Caligula and Domitian abused their powers as leaders. They funded their lavish lifestyles using public resources, leaving their economies in crisis. Nevertheless, Caligula’s tyranny is more exaggerated than Domitian’s because after depleting the money in the treasury, he imposed higher taxes on the citizens to continue accumulating money to pursue his interests. This portrays him as a cruel ruler who did not show regard to the plight of his people. Although Domitian looted the government’s funds, he ensured to invest in several projects to benefit his people. Thus, Caligula was harsher than Domitian because he only pursued his ambitions.

Perception of Being Supreme

Caligula viewed himself as an immortal god and expected to receive similar treatment as other gods. Following his ascension to power, Caligula initiated his pursuit to become a god. The executions of both people and animals in the altars were perceived as a sacrifice to begin his self-deification. ¹⁸He later authorised the construction of temples in his name all over Rome, even in the smallest villages. A magnificent temple in the name of Caligula was also erected on Palatine Hill at the central point of Rome. During the executions at the altars, he would wear clothing associated with various gods, such as Jupiter, Hercules, Venus, and Mars, among others.

Caligula also expected the Roman citizens to respect him as a deity; he would be driven around the city in a luxurious carriage to identify the likely contenders for sacrifice at the altar. Like the gods, he felt that he had the power to decide the fate of his people. ¹⁹In this case, if he disliked an individual’s hairstyle or dressing code, then such a person would be put to death. On one occasion, Caligula challenged the god Jupiter to a duel, and following the non-appearance of the god, he declared himself the winner. Henceforth, everyone who appeared before him had to prostrate themselves on the ground and kiss his boots. In addition, Caligula also conflicted with the Jews in Jerusalem after they refused to erect a statue in his honour. He felt that the Jews did not respect him as a deity because they believed in only one true God.

On the other hand, Domitian also regarded himself as an absolute ruler and loved the idea of being addressed as a master or god. He also renamed two months on the calendar after him; September was named Germanicus while October was dubbed Domitianus. ²⁰However, some studies indicate that Domitian never coerced his citizens to refer to him as a god; instead, it was some government officials who sought favours from him who addressed him as master. In addition, he did not impose his preferences on his citizen’s lifestyles or cultural matters.

Therefore, by analysing both leaders’ perceptions and expectations of being treated like a god, Caligula is depicted as a worse tyrant than Domitian. Caligula perceived himself as a god and coerced people to respect him as a deity and prostrate before him. He also ordered the construction of temples throughout Rome in his name, forcing people to worship him contrary to Roman values. ²¹Those who opposed his status as a deity were executed, including the magicians and other culturists. His view of being a deity also encouraged more executions as he felt that he had the power to decide who died and who lived. Domitian may have loved the idea of being referred to as a god. However, unlike Caligula, he did not coerce his citizens to regard him as a deity, neither did he order the construction of temples in his honour. Thus, Caligula deserves the tyrant label due to his vicious actions compared to Domitian.

Analysis of Caligula’s Tyrannical Acts

It is important to note that, although Caligula had an oppressive and harsh regime, there is a possibility that a mental disorder contributed to his erratic behaviour. ²²He experienced a traumatizing childhood following the deaths of his father, mother, and elder brothers. This may have had a negative impact on his psychological health. Likewise, Tiberius later adopted him and treated him like a prisoner. In addition, while living with Tiberius, Caligula witnessed a lot of torture and brutality and was also coerced to participate in obscene acts. All these may have had adverse effects on young Caligula’s mental state, leading to a mental disorder during his reign that affected his behaviour. During his initial months as an emperor, he was perceived as a good leader who freed the citizens who Tiberius had unfairly jailed. ²³He also eliminated the unpopular tax system and treason trials initiated by Tiberius. These actions portray a leader who cared for the lives of his people.

Caligula’s cruel acts became evident after recovering from a prolonged illness. ²⁴Some historians presume that he may have been suffering from temporal lobe epilepsy, while others infer that he may have had a mental disorder. Thus, the illness may have accounted for his erratic tendencies, such as ordering arbitrary executions and proclaiming himself a god. ²⁵However, some historians object to the idea of a mental illness by stating that if Caligula had an ailment, the Senate would have removed him from power. There is also another possibility that Caligula was harsh because he lacked the appropriate leadership skills. He might have never been a leader if his father and two older brothers were never murdered. Therefore, Caligula’s tyranny may have resulted from bad leadership skills or an acute illness that affected his mental state.

Conclusion

Caligula and Domitian are among the most authoritarian leaders in world history. Both had absolute power, making other leaders and the Senate-house insignificant. They are also renowned for the brutal executions of their opponents and critics. Domitian and Caligula also misused government funds, resulting in financial crises, and perceived themselves as gods (deity). Even though these leaders shared similar tyrannical characteristics, Caligula’s cruel acts were more extreme than Domitian’s; thus, he better deserves the label of a tyrant. This is because his executions were not only limited to his critics and rivals but also included slaves, criminals, and royal families. He randomly selected who would die, and he enjoyed watching people get tortured. His resumption of the treason trials indicates that he wanted to inflict fear upon people, a prominent characteristic of a tyrant. Similarly, after squandering the treasury funds to maintain his lavish lifestyle, he imposed heavy taxes on the citizens so that he could continue living a luxurious life. This portrays him as a selfish leader who is only concerned about himself. Therefore, between Caligula and Domitian, Caligula best fits the title of a tyrant.

Reference List

Barrett, A.A. (1989). Caligula: The Corruption of Power. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Bontty, M.M. (2020). Ancient Rome: Facts and Fictions. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.

Boyle, A. and Dominik, W.J. (2002). Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text. Leiden: Brill.

Flower, H.I. (2011). The art of forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Jones, B. (1993). The Emperor Domitian. Milton Park: Routledge.

Rohmann, D. (2019). Christianity and the History of Violence in the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook. Stuttgart: UTB GmbH.

Strauss, B. (2019). Ten Caesars: Roman Emperors from Augustus to Constantine. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Winterling, A. (2015). Caligula: A Biography. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Footnotes

1. Aloys Winterling, Caligula: A Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015), 24.
2. Anthony A. Barrett, Caligula: The Corruption of Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 120.
3. Dirk Rohmann, Christianity and the History of Violence in the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook (Stuttgart: UTB GmbH, 2019), 35.
4. Monica M. Bontty, Ancient Rome: Facts and Fictions (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2020), 130.
5. Rohmann, Christianity and the History of Violence in the Roman Empire, 21.
6. Winterling, Caligula, 1.
7. Barrett, Caligula, 124-125.
8. Winterling, 1.
9. Brian Jones, The Emperor Domitian (Milton Park: Routledge, 1993), 23.
10. Harriet I. Flower, The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 36-65.
11. Anthony A. Boyle and William J. Dominik, Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 255-270.
12. Barry Strauss, Ten Caesars: Roman Emperors from Augustus to Constantine (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2019), 98.
13. Strauss, Ten Caesars, 259.
14. Bontty, Ancient Rome, 206.
15. Winterling, 130-131.
16. Jones, The Emperor, 159-161.
17. Boyle and Dominik, Flavian Rome, 14.
18. Winterling, 75.
19. Barrett, 140.
20. Jones, 108.
21. Winterling, 132.
22. Barrett, 9.
23. Winterling, 68.
24. Bontty, 106.
25. Winterling, 212.