American vs. Japanese Cultures as Adaptive Systems Research Paper

Introduction

The world has many cultural ties where every country bears its unique values that underline how people live in it. Despite the glaring differences between the cultures of different nations, some parallels exist highlighting the fact that people adopt living styles, which are similar in more than one level, regardless of their geographic locations. This paper will give a detailed review of my culture (American) and the one, which interests me (Japanese), with the sole focus of comparing and contrasting them.

It will also describe the natures of these two cultures, including other cultural aspects such as communication, mental and physical health, time orientation, measures and perceptions of intelligence, and group relationships. Since the analysis of these cultures will be done from the perspective of the cultural theory, the paper will also examine how each culture influences the development of people, identity, and personality within it. An explanation of how these cultures influence emotional expression, morality development, aggression, and gender, among other psychological processes will also be provided in this research. Lastly, the paper will also outline the biases that are likely to influence the study of these cultures.

The Japanese Culture

Almost all the world’s cultures have undergone evolution. The Japanese culture is not an exception. The largely multifaceted Japanese culture is a blend of the deepest traditions that are synonymous with the ancient times (Osterud 91). It features regular shifts of fashion, fads, and technological advancements that break almost all the boundaries of what most people view as impossible. An intensive overview of this culture reveals that it is not a simple mix of ancient traditions and modernity (Varley 12). For this reason, the following is an in-depth examination of the Japanese culture.

The People

From a general perspective, the Japanese citizens appear as one of the world’s most ethnically and socially homogenous people. Until recently, the people of Japan in the labor force closely identified themselves with their employers. For example, a businessperson would introduce himself as “I am Paresh of Nissan” (Nissan no Paresh-san). By extension, the world can get the notion that Japanese people subordinate themselves to their society’s objectives. However, this idea changed in 2008 when a long-serving politician of the Japanese government, Nariaki Nakayama, downed his tools after “declaring Japan an ethnically homogenous nation” (“Inside Japan” par. 4).

He held that the “out-of-fashion idea that Japan believed in “one race, one people had turned politically incorrect. The latest census required the people of Japan to define themselves by their nationality only and not ethnicity. Hence, the actual demographic of Japan remains unclear. According to Varley, studies show that Japan has 750,000 citizens with mixed backgrounds, as well as nearly 1.5 million permanent foreigners (16). In total, the country has a population of about 126 million people who do not have a “pure” Japanese origin. In general, the largest ethnic communities in Japan comprise people of the Philippines, Brazil, China, and Korea origins (Varley 16).

Religion

The religious practices of Japan represent a mishmash of beliefs from both Buddhism and Shintoism. The religion in Japan is different from that of the West. Hence, Japanese uphold neither a doctrine nor practice preaching. The manner of living underlines the ethical rules, which make it difficult to differentiate it from the cultural and societal standards of the Japanese people. Unlike the West, Japanese people make religion a private family practice since it is not a state-driven affair. For example, the ceremonies of school graduations do not involve religious symbols or prayers.

The Japanese citizens do not discuss religion in their day-to-day life. Besides, they do not declare themselves religious or worship on a regular basis. However, most people of Japan practice religious rituals during marriage, birth, and death ceremonies. They also participate in religious festivals (matsuri). Until the Second World War, the religion of Japan made the people believe that the Emperor was the living God. The subjects of the Emperor viewed themselves as members of a huge Japanese family. Currently, religion leans more towards the identity of the Japanese relative to their spirituality. According to Varley, religion plays an integral role in strengthening the community and family links (21).

Social Conventions

Since the Japanese value their customs and mannerism, they master the subtleties of their unique culture as evidenced in their various aspects of life. It is through this approach that the people of Japan learn to respect the various invisible rules of their society. Although outsiders cannot have the perfect mastery and knowledge of all the social aspects of the Japanese culture, they can grasp the visible one. The first one is bowing, which the people of Japan use when they have to say thank you, goodbye, sorry, or hello. They use it for greetings and/or when showing gratitude, remorse, and respect. Taking off footwear is also a significant feature of the Japanese culture. The people are required to take off their shoes when entering an occasional restaurant, traditional guesthouse (ryokan), temple, or home.

Respect is a social tip that the Japanese observe. For example, “San” is suffix used when referring to someone in a respectful manner, in which case Mr. Yotishima would be referred to as “Yotishima-san.” During meals, the Japanese join their hands together and say “Itadakimasu,” which translates into “I humbly receive.” It is also almost mandatory (polite) to appreciate after getting a meal. They do so by saying “Gochiso sama deshita”. Unlike in the West, the culture of Japan prohibits tipping in both restaurants and other eateries (Varley 17).

Sports

Despite participating in the “world-class” sporting events, Japan established several sports that are only synonymous with its culture. An example is the Sumo, which is the de facto national sporting event of Japan. This game, which is about 1,500 years, is deeply rooted in the Japanese culture. Since Sumo existed as a version of Shinto ceremony, historians argue that the continued existence of the Japanese citizens relied on the results of a ‘sumo’ encounter with the primeval gods. Although the modern people have developed it into a professional sport, the aspects of the Shinto rituals are still evident. For example, the match officials ‘purify’ the ring using salt before hanging a shrine-like roof over the ring.

Also referred to as Basho, the Sumo tournaments take place on a bi-monthly basis in Fukuoka, Osaka, Tokyo, and Nagoya. The pre-bout antics are formalized and strict. The battle engages all parts of the body except the soles of the participants’ feet. Sumo is quintessentially Japanese sport. Nevertheless, in the recent times, several foreign wrestlers of non-Japanese origin have excelled in this sport. Other sporting activities of the Japanese culture include kendo (a furious and noisy sport of martial arts that involves skills, bravery, and power), karate, aikido, and judo.

In essence, all cultural sports in Japan involve martial arts. However, they also participate in the less aggressive sports of the modern times. For example, they play yakyu, which loosely translates into “field-ball” (a form of baseball). Besides, although it dipped after 1990s glory days, the Japanese soccer league has regained popularity. Japan has some famous soccer stars. For instance, Honda Keisuke plays for AC Millan, which is one of the world’s historical and successful football teams. Other sporting activities that the Japanese people participate in involve skating, golfing, and gateball among other events that other countries play around the world (Varley 16).

Cuisine

The Japanese are among the world’s cultures that have passionate and enthusiastic cooks. The people of Japan value their dishes. They can travel out of their hometowns in search of other delicacies. Although the world knows it for sushi, the Japanese have a collection of several dishes. Many towns and cities in Japan prepare a range of delicacies such as noodles, fish, tofu, and seaweed among others. In fact, the culture of Japan has so much passion towards food to the extent that one is likely to catch a show about food anytime he or she turns on the TV.

Once used as the country’s currency, rice is the staple food for the people of Japan. It has remained so for more than 2,000 years (“Japan Fact Sheet” 1). It either forms the basis of almost all the meals or accompanies them. Since the Japanese are proud of the four seasons of the year, they welcome each of them with delicious offerings. The inns, supermarkets, restaurants, and hotels change their menus to reflect what the season has. Just like rice, fish is a must-have food in the Japanese diet. Whether they eat fish almost live (when they refer to it as odorigui), raw (sashimi or nama), deep-fried (tempura), or grilled (yaki), it is evident that the Japanese value this food. They try almost every method of preparing it.

Japan boasts of a wide array of vegetables and fruits, noodle dishes, and some high-class patisseries. The country also makes Kobe beef, a meal prepared from cows raised in line with the strict traditional provisions. However, Japan is not a place for those who love red and white meat. Vegetarians have a place in this country too. The Japanese prepare several meals that the vegetarians find delicious. For example, the zaru soba (noodles made from buckwheat and served with a dipping sauce), udon (thick noodles) in a soup of mountain vegetable, and okonomiyaki or tofu steak are some of the meals the vegetarians can use.

Drinking

Just as they are passionate about their dishes, the Japanese love their drinks too. They have to conduct a few rituals before taking alcohol. For example, nobody should pour a drink for himself or herself because this role is a preserve of a friend or host. The visitor’s duty is to ensure that his or her champion’s glass stays full to the brim. Kansai (cheers) is a must-say before the drinking starts. Despite their evident love of drinks, the Japanese do not just go out to have drinks as witnessed in the Westerners. Drinking involves a light snack (otsumami) or a meal.

Other Cultural Features

One of the unique factors of the Japanese culture is geisha. The distinctive red lips, white face, and extensively decorated hairstyle (geisha) is an outstanding view portrayed in almost every part of the universe. Although it has its origins from the Japanese culture, the modern-day concept of geisha is a practice that remains a mystery to even the Japanese and most foreigners. The Japanese gardens are also different from those of other countries. They demonstrate the influences of the Buddhist practices that emerged in Japan in 612. A Japanese emissary, Ono-no-Imoko, went to China and adopted several Buddhist ways of life that he decided to recreate when he returned home. During this time, the Japanese created their gardens in line with their religious beliefs, which seemed to share several values with the Buddhists of China. Cartoonists and lovers of animated films recognize the influence of the Japanese cultural ‘manga and anime’ in this field. Although it only belonged to Japan, anime (Japanese Animation) and Manga (comics of the Japanese) has transformed into a global powerhouse. The Japanese culture is also distinguishable from those of other nations around the globe from its theater, cherry blossom, and Samurai.

Why the Japanese Culture Interests Me

The Japanese culture interests me for several reasons. For starters, I like it because it has many things that do not exist in my culture, as well as those that the people of Japan do differently from the way Americans handle them. In other words, my interest in the culture of Japan underlies the glaring differences that exist between it and that of the United States. Some of the factors that make me develop interest towards the Japanese culture are the social conventions. The Japanese are customary and respectful, with the latter aspect being the quality I value (Foster 237). In fact, the Japanese administration engaged in a plan to “brand the nation as culturally exciting” (Foster 237). Although the Americans are not outright disrespectful, they do not boast the same customary obedience that the Japanese have. My belief is that such a gesture of peaceful interaction can help our country in more than one level. Not only can they assist the United States to improve mutual coexistence of the people but also fight some social vices such as segregation and racism.

For someone who likes martial arts, there is no better place to look for inspiration than Japan. The country invented and still practices karate. Hence, developing interest and studying it could help me to improve my skills in this physical activity. A significant percent of Americans and other people from different parts of the world recognize and love Japanese cuisine. I am not any different. Sushi, tofu, and Japanese dinners are my favorites, although I know that the list would increase if I visited the place. Another factor that makes me endeared to the culture of Japan is the way the Japanese handle their drinking habits.

The Nature of the Japanese Culture

Just like the other Asian cultures (China and Korea), the Japanese culture is collectivistic in nature. Such cultures are those that emphasize the goals and needs of a group (community) as a whole, rather than focusing on the wishes and needs of each person. Relationships with other people of the society, including the connections between all members of the group, make a significant contribution to shaping the identity of every individual. Besides the Asian cultures, collectivism is also commonplace in Africa, South America, and Central America.

The American Culture

My culture comprises a set of the American traditions and customs. According to the Census Bureau of America, the United States is the world’s largest nation with a population of over 320 million people. Since it is a populous country, the US is also among the countries with the highest cases of cultural diversification in the world. The United States is the country of immigrants. This situation makes its culture a blend of almost all regions of the world (Barakat, Gopalakrishna, and Lala 405). Notably, the English people colonized it during the early stages of the 1600s. Other cultures that also shape that of the United States are those of the Asians, Africans, Latin-Americans, and Native-Americans (Marsden 24).

Language

According to the Government of the United States, America does not have an official language. Although nearly every language spoken in other parts of the world exists in the US, Chinese, Spanish, German, and French remain the top non-English languages that are frequently spoken in the country (Kaufman 62). Almost everyone in the United States (about 90 percent of the people) understands and speaks English. Most business activities take place in English. The Census Bureau of the United States estimates that the languages spoken in the country are over 300 (Marsden 32).

Religion

Following the adoption of Religious Freedom, the United States features nearly all religions of the world. The ABC Poll of 2012 estimated that about 83 percent of the people of America practiced Christianity and that 13 percent belonged to no religion. Another 2012 Poll reported similar findings. Judaism is the country’s second most practiced religious affiliation, with nearly 1.7 percent of Americans identifying themselves with it (Marsden 31). Only 0.6 percent of those interviewed in the study admitted to practicing Muslim.

The American Style

In the US, people dress in line with their occupation, social status, climate, and region. Americans closely associate with jeans, cowboy hats, baseball caps, boots, and sneakers. Victoria Secret, Calvin Klein, Ralph Lauren, and Michael Kors are some of the American brands that the world recognizes.

The American Food

The American cuisine is a feature of Native-American and European cuisines, which influenced it in the early history. Currently, some foods that are widely identified as American are meat loaf, macaroni and cheese, potato chips, hot dogs, and hamburgers. “American apple pie” is a term that the US people use to refer to foods that are authentically American.

Other Aspects of the American Culture

In terms of arts, the US is the world’s leading producer of mass media, including movies and television. The America’s Department of Commerce states that the US constitutes one-third of the global entertainment and media industry. America is a sports-minded nation that participates in almost every sports of the world, including baseball, hockey, basketball, and football among other sporting events.

The Nature of the US Culture

Unlike the Japanese, the American culture is individualistic in nature. Such cultures are those that emphasize the individual needs over those of a group (community/society) as a whole. In an individualistic culture, people are autonomous and independent. Their social behaviors underlie the preferences and attitudes of individuals. The Western Europe also practices an individualistic culture.

Comparison

Time Orientation

The perception of time differs from one culture to another in significant ways. America and Japan have the same view of time orientation. For example, taking long to get the business done or reporting late for any appointment may seem accepted in many Arabian and Mediterranean countries, as well as the less-developed parts of Asia. However, such habits would appear as anathema in the punctuality-conscious Japan and the United States.

Communication

America’s style of communication is direct. The US citizens value linear and logic thinking. They expect people to speak in a straightforward and transparent manner, which means that anyone who struggles to tell things “how they are” wastes time. The Japanese communication style is characterized by nuance and subtlety. Here, the appearance of a person, what he or she pronounces in public (tatemae), and/or what he or she has in mind (honne) are not necessarily in one line.

Physical and Mental Health

Almost 90 percent of the Americans value both mental and physical health. About one-third of the country’s population finds it difficult to access mental health care. Approximately 4 out of 10 people view cost as a barrier to seeking treatment. These estimations are the findings of the country’s largest health institutions such as the US Foundation for Suicide Prevention, the National Action Alliance for Suicide Prevention, and the American Anxiety and Depression Association. On the contrary, the Japanese are at a higher risk of contracting mental health issues, which also affect their physical health. In a study by Yuasa et al., the researchers found that natural disasters such as the Great Earthquake of East Japan play an integral role in causing mental health problems (137).

Group Relationships

Also referred to as group marriage or polygamy, this practice has not been a legally recognized in America. Besides, it has never been a culturally normative institution in the United States since the Europeans colonized the North America. Currently, the Japanese adopt an approach that is similar to that of the Americans. Initially, Japan allowed men to marry many as five wives. However, it abolished this system in 1889 when it established the Japanese Imperial Constitution. Since then, the Japanese abolished polygamy to give room for equal union between women and men.

Perceptions and Measures of Intelligence

The overall image of America around the globe is positive. A survey by the Pew Research Center reveals that 69 percent of the participant nations have a favorable opinion of the United States while 24 percent of them have a different perception (par. 2). In the United States, the ultimate measure of intelligence is the Standardized Intelligence Testing. In Japan, cultural factors such as the Taoist tradition act as the measures of intelligence since the Japanese view an intelligent person as one who knows Tao or the ultimate greatness. The Japanese people have used the same traditional beliefs to steer themselves to incorporate the modern concepts of intelligence in which education proves vital. In a study to determine why the Japanese perform best in school, the Japanese have strived to boost their IQ scores by practicing to take tests in school and Juku (Service 19).

Analyzing the Two Cultures Using the Cultural Theory

The analysis of these cultures uses the theory of viewing a culture as an adaptive system. The analysis of the cultural theory underlies the concept of dealing with it from an evolutionary perspective in which culture features a set of three ideas. The first one is the fact that culture is a system of socially transmissible behavioral patterns that strive to link human communities to ecological setups. Some of the ways of life for a community include the mode of economic structure and technologies, patterns of settlement, mode of political organization and social grouping, and religious practices and beliefs among other factors. When people view the cultural features as the conduct systems of populations, it becomes evident that cultures can act as behavior patterns. The second concept of this theory is that cultural changes mark the processes of the things that amount to natural selection and adaptation.

When viewed as adaptive systems, cultures change in line with the direction of the ecosystem’s equilibrium. However, when demographic, technological, environmental, or other systemic shifts upset the balances, further transformations occur in the cultural systems. The third concept of this theory is that the most adaptively integral realms of cultures are subsistence economy, technology, and aspects of social organizations.

Application of the Theory

According to the provisions of this theory, one would argue that the Japanese live in the way they do because their lifestyle is a system that they adapt. In this case, the young ones are taught to adapt to the way the older members of the society do things. Particularly, the Japanese culture is a system that promotes collectivism. Besides the Japanese believing in traditions, they use rice as the staple food and Tao as a measure of intelligence while at the same time practicing both Buddhism and Shintoism among other factors that distinguish the country from other cultures of the world. The people of Japan develop in line with the cultural aspects that make them “Japanese”. For example, they focus on the benefit of the society, rather than personal gains. They also avoid preaching and going out to drink in bars. Besides, they do other things as stipulated by their culture (system). Through this process, they adopt identities and personalities that depict these cultural practices and beliefs.

On the other hand, the cultural theory applies to the American Culture in the same way as that of the Japanese. The Americans operate on a system that distinguishes them from the other cultures of the world. For example, they believe in individualism where everyone is a representative of himself or herself in the society. The people of the United States develop in ways that depict their identities and personalities as Americans. For example, they use a direct communication style, widely use English, dress in line with the fashion trends, practice the religion of their choice, participate in various sports, and/or use Native-American and European cuisines among other practices.

The Influence of Each Culture in Line with the Cultural Theory

From a general perspective, Japanese are emotional people who believe in collectivism in which everyone tends to focus on the needs of the society, rather than personal interests. The Japanese culture’s reliance on traditions and respect makes the people morally advanced. This claim is evidenced by their promotion of gender equality and equity following Japan’s adoption of the Japanese Imperial Constitution in 1889, which accompanied the abolition of polygamy. The Japanese are less aggressive people since their cultural system promotes respect for one another. However, some aspects of the Japanese culture, especially their traditional sports that focus on martial arts promote aggression. Examples include sumo, judo, and karate among others.

Unlike the Japanese, the Americans are less emotional people since their culture promotes individualism. Showing much sympathy to others may not be common in the US. Although most people in America are morally advanced, the US culture comprises several factors that depict immorality. Drug and substance abuse, sexual orientation and sex trades, as well as criminal activities, are some of the examples of immoral engagements. Although Americans do not support polygamy, they do not pay much attention to gender as evidenced by sex disparities in the labor force, politics, and sectors of the society. The people of the United States are aggressive. They tend to believe in “the survival for the fittest,” which means that one’s success may depend on his or her aggressiveness.

Conclusion: Biasness

Conclusively, any analysis involving comparing two things may feature biasness. Hence, my review of the American and Japanese cultures may be biased. It is possible to favor one of them by either depicting my culture as superior or praising the one that interests me. My limited knowledge of the Japanese Culture could have contributed to showing bias towards it. The information presented in this paper is my research about it. Hence, it is possible to select some aspects of the Japanese while leaving other crucial elements. However, my analysis is authentic in its comparison of the two cultures.

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