Introduction
Arabic culture is one of the major cultures in the world. Over the course of centuries, Arabs were able to build a civilization that made significant contributions to the cultural and scientific treasuries of the world. In this paper, we will describe the achievements in the exact and life sciences that were made by Arabs in the 9-13th centuries, during the Islamic Golden Age.
Exact Sciences
Mathematics
Arabic scholars significantly contributed to the development of mathematics. Having used the legacy of the Ancient Greeks (in particular, Euclid and Nicomachus), they advanced the science of arithmetic, as well as number theory, creating their own doctrines. For instance, Thabit studied the issue of infinite collections, and suggested that an infinite collection could be a member of another infinite collection; even though he did not develop the theory of transfinite numbers, this was a remarkable discovery. Arabs also developed the notion of irrational numbers; before that, the irrational was viewed only as a geometrical magnitude. Important discoveries in this field were made by Umar al-Khayyam (the 11-12th century) and Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi (the 13th century).
The currently used positional decimal numerical system also has Arabic origins. For a number of centuries before the 15th, Arabs utilized three main systems of numerical reckoning; the most advanced of them came from India, and it could express any number, no matter how large, using ten different symbols. However, in the 15th century, al-Kashi wrote a book entitled Key to Arithmetic, where he unified the three systems of numerical reckoning, introduced the place-value decimal system, and successfully used it in order to express both integers and fractions. Analogous developments were made in Europe only two centuries later. It is not an exaggeration to say that all contemporary mathematics is possible thanks to the existence of the positional notations.
Al-Khwarizmi was one of the first Arabic developers of algebra (the notion itself comes from al-Jabr, a term denoting one of Al-Khwarizmi’s basic operations). Even though he might have used the developments of Greeks or Indians, his Kitab al-Jabr we al-Muqabalah was a prominent work of that time.
Arabic geometricians also made a number of significant discoveries. For instance, the so-called Alhazen’s problem was formulated and solved by Ibn al-Haytham. Another important problem that Arabian geometricians dealt with was related to Euclidian “parallels postulate”; Arabs attempted to find a proof for this postulate, in the process of this proving a number of non-Euclidian theorems, even though the possibility of the existence of a non-Euclidian geometry was not realized by them.
Astronomy
The astronomy developed by Arabs was mainly Ptolemaic; because for a long time there was no apparent need to revise its principles, the Arabs focused on developing that system, creating new computation techniques, and inventing new planetary models in order to harmonize the existing system with its principles.
Arabs also conducted much astronomic observational research. A number of new astronomic tables (zijes) were developed; observational tools such as quadrants and astrolabes were created. In addition, in their efforts to advance the calculus of chords, mathematicians significantly improved the trigonometric calculus; these developments can mainly be found in works related to astronomy. However, Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi separated trigonometry from spherical astronomy, and thanks to him it started progressing as a separate discipline.
In the 12th century, Arabs from Spain (e.g., Ibn Rushd, Ibn Tufayl, Maimonides) revolted against the Ptolemaic approach to astronomy and supported the Aristotelian system. Abu Ishaq al-Bitruji created a system of astronomy based on Aristotle’s teachings.
Still, most astronomic developments and discussions adhered to the Ptolemaic system. Many debates were related to the possibility of consistent integration of physical and mathematical astronomic models. Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi and his colleagues, and Ibn ash-Shatir created planetary models that could be expressed using the physical language in a way that was consistent with the basic astronomical principles.
Optics
The foundations of most Arabic achievements in optics were Greek; much was adopted from Ptolemy. His treatise on optics was related mainly to the theory of vision, making it interesting to medics as well. Al-Kindi, Hunayn bin Ishaq, and Ibn Sina were all prominent Arabic opticians who followed different Ancient Greek theories. On the other hand, Ibn al-Haytham combined physical theories and mathematical methods to create a new theory of vision, different from all those that had been written before. He used the methods of geometry to the physical teachings about the form that emanated from an object and entered the eye. He also raised a number of important questions that urged his successors to seek more answers and formulated a theory of the psychology of visual perception. Based on Ibn al-Haytham’s achievements, Kamal ad-Din was able to produce a successful explanation of the phenomenon of rainbows. Kamal ad-Din also performed important research into the phenomenon of the camera obscura; many of his and Ibn al-Haytham’s conclusions were used in further studies.
Life Sciences
Internal and Clinical Medicine
The development of medicine in the Arabic world in the Middle Ages happened thanks to Hunayn bin Ishaq al-Ibadi (809-873), who translated numerous Ancient Greek texts into Arabic and laid the base for the further medical practice and advancements. Hunayn al-Ibadi also wrote his own works, including an Introduction to the Healing Arts.
Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Zakariya ar-Razi (865-925) was another prominent Arabic medic, some of whose advancements and concepts are used until today. His treatises on smallpox and measles gave him worldwide recognition. His works on clinical and internal medicine also discussed such subjects as drugs, diets, general medical definitions, mother- and childcare, toxicology, and the influence of the environment on health. His successor, Ali bin Abbas al-Majusi, made a number of significant medical discoveries as well. Another doctor, Ibn Butlan, became widely known for his treatise on the preservation and restoration of good health, which argues that in order to remain healthy, one needs to balance six factors related to environment and one’s diet and day regimen.
Other prominent medical scientists include Ibn al-Jazzar (known for his works on childcare), Arib bin Said (wrote a book on embryology, gynecology, and pediatrics), Ibn Juljul and az-Zahrawi (famous for their advancements in pharmacy, internal clinical medicine, medical botany, and surgery), and Rabbi Musa bin Maymun (noted for his works on therapeutics, internal medicine, and health and environment).
Hospitals and Medical Education
Noteworthy, hospitals were first created in the Arabic world. The first hospitals of the 8-9th century became the prototype for the further development of institutions focusing on treating diseases and conducting medical research. In the 10th century, the Adudi hospital in Bagdad was famous in many parts of the world. It had the personnel of 24 doctors, learning halls, and a rich library; learners from worldwide came to study there. In 12-13th centuries, Egyptian and Syrian hospitals were considered “one of the treasures of Muslim civilization” (Book Author’s Surname 100).
Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases
Because of how widely spread were ophthalmologic diseases in the Middle East, Arabic physicians frequently had to deal with them, and made significant progress in the field, developing it to levels that were not met anywhere in the world until the 17th century. Hunayn bin Ishaq was possibly the first physician who created a systematized ophthalmologic manual (840-840), investigating the anatomy of the brain, eyes, and optical nerves, as well as some ophthalmologic diseases and ways to cure them.
One of the highest points of development of the Arabic ophthalmology was reached circa 1000 by Ali bin Isa; his book A Thesaurus for Ophthalmologists summarized the existing knowledge on the subject. Another physician, Ammar bin Ali al-Mawsili, devised the technique of suction removal for patients suffering from a cataract; it was widely used in the future.
Pharmaceutics
The first known formulary in the Arabic world was written by Sabur bin Sahl in the 9th century. Other formularies and compendiums were created after that, including those written by ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. In the 11th century, Abu ar-Rayhan al-Biruni wrote one of the most important Arabic works on pharmacy, describing some of the most basic principles of pharmacology in a very detailed fashion. Ibn al-Tilmidh wrote a treatise on the creation and prescription of a wide range of medicines.
On the whole, Arabs were able to create a variety of new medications not known from the past times and significantly developed pharmacology and pharmacy. They also made much advancement in the field of toxicology
Medical Botany and Therapeutics
The developments in pharmacology also required to pay much attention to such a field as medical botany. Arabs often attempted to produce medicine from plants and created a classification system grounded on the works of Dioscorides. Much data on medical plants were collected by Abu Hanifah ad-Dinawari.
Agricultural Science and Husbandry
Arabs used many of the Greek developments in the agricultural sphere, but also wrote noteworthy manuals of their own. Ibn al-Bassal (the 11th century) and Ibn al-Awwam (the 12th century) created manuals on agriculture that were widely recognized. Al-Bassal’s manual was translated into Spanish in 1955, whereas Ibn al-Awwam’s work was translated into Spanish and French in the 19th century; they did not lose their relevance over the course of centuries.
Alchemical Science and Astrology
Jabir bin Hayyan al-Azdi was a legendary founder of alchemy who is believed to have lived in the 8-9th centuries. It is unknown whether he was a historical figure, but since the end of the 8th century and up to the 14th century, Arabic alchemy was thriving, and the alchemists contributed significantly to the development of the sphere and opened a path to the development of chemistry. Alchemy met resistance from numerous Muslim scholars because of its possible inconsistency with the Islamic principles. Also, importantly, alchemy was more similar to astrology than to chemistry; astrology, on the other hand, was believed to be able to develop methods of affecting human beings. Alchemical and astrological considerations were often employed while treating people.
Conclusion
To sum up, it should be stressed that the Arabic civilization made significant contributions to the world’s treasure-house of science. Numerous advancements made during the Islamic Golden Age were important for the further development of science; some of the findings, such as the positional notations, play a tremendous role in the science that exists nowadays.
Works Cited
Book Author’s Surname, Name. Title of the Book. City, Country: Publisher, year. Print.