Introduction
The 7th Century of Islamic History was a period marked by the conquest of new lands in a bid to convert the populace. During this period Islam experienced significant growth from a small group of Arab ruling classes to an increasingly dominant faith (Waldman, 2022). The process of conversion meant that there was a significant cultural exchange between the Arabs and indigenous communities, resulting in the formation of Islamic identities and orientations. The Arabic language was utilized as a vehicle for the transfer of Islamic culture, even though Arabs remained a minority. The 7th Century marked the beginning of the implementation of trade and tax measures as defining elements of the Muslim state as the centralized empire began its transformation into a nominal confederation. The leaders and events that characterized the 7th Century of Islamic history impacted Muslims’ lives, cultures, traditions, and interactions with other communities.
Umar I
The builders of the early Islamic civilization transferred elements from the Roman and Sasanian territories that they dominated. Umar, I ruled between 634 and 644 after succeeding Abu Bakr and is credited for channeling many early Islamic conquests (Waldman, 2022). He chose leaders that were adept at trade and warfare in the quest to expand Islam’s reach. He defined a true Muslim as a man who owns a home, property, and a family and is interested in learning about Islam (Hoyland, 2020). In addition, the man willingly drives his camels to market and uses the revenue on equipment in the path of God, lives among Muslims, and aids in the defeat of their enemies (Hoyland, 2020). The aforementioned qualities were used to define converts and communities who were willing to join the Islamic movement.
Umar, I bore the title of the commander of the faithful, which served as a bridge between organized activism and faithfulness. He applied the lunar calendar that began with the great emigration, also referred to as Hijra, which marked the time Muhammad led a group of believers to a new land (Waldman, 2022). He is also credited with establishing a register that ensured that the ruling elite and conquering forces were paid and he oversaw the construction of garrisons at strategic locations such as Egypt, Syria, and Damascus, to ensure the expansion of the Islamic empire. These barracks served as local attractions to indigenous populations and triggered expansive demographic changes. They served as points at which the rudiments of daily Islamic life were practiced.
The 7th Century was characterized by the establishment of garrisons in conquered lands. Their main purpose was to house Arab armies and police the conquered territories. The establishments began in Kufa and Basra in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt (Hoyland, 2020). This was followed by Aqaba in Jordan, Qayrawan in Tunisia, and Ramla in Palestine (Hoyland, 2020). The individuals who settled in were paid stipends from the taxes collected from the local populations, which meant that they did not have to seek a livelihood. The garrisons were typically located a short distance from existing cities over a short period. This was because Arab soldiers were particularly wealthy and they often captured a large number of war prisoners. The locations quickly grew into thriving cities that soon replaced the ones they ordered. The number of troops accommodated in each garrison varied depending on the region’s needs. A census conducted in the Basra and Kufa in 670 highlighted the fact that they contained 80,000 and 60,000 fighting men, respectively (Hoyland, 2020). The rapidly expanding Islamic state needed manpower to conquer new lands.
Uthman ibn Affan
Uthman ibn Affan took over from Umar I who was dedicated to the expansion of the Islamic empire. He ruled between 644 and 656 at a time when it took 25 years for the Muslim Arab forces to create a permanent link between the Mediterranean and Western Asia (Waldman, 2022). The fall of Sasanian Al-Hirah in 633 paved the way for the defeat of one of the largest Byzantine forces in Syria, which allowed for the final conquest of Damascus in 636 (Waldman, 2022). The Roman domination of Syria was extinguished by 640, and the Sasanian territory west of the Zagros was under Islamic control by 641 (Waldman, 2022). It is vital to note that between 642 and 646, Egypt was under the firm control of Amr ibn al-As, who orchestrated raids into the lands west of the country (Waldman, 2022). The Arab invasion was barely resisted because the locals hoped they would drive the Greeks out of the region (Enoch, 2018). The last Sasanian emperor was assassinated in 651, marking the fall of Persepolis and the end of the 400-year history of the Sasanian empire (Waldman, 2022). Islam expanded its territories as it spread a new religion across lands that had previously been governed by tyrannical rulers.
Uthman
Uthman’s determination to continue his forbearer’s actions was exemplified by his desire to surpass the set limits. It is believed that in 651, the ruler sent an emissary to China (Waldman, 2022). It is vital to note that the fiscal strain that characterized the expansion efforts coupled with the increasing independence of local Arabs prompted the growth of discontent during Uthman’s reign. It is believed that the ruler relied solely on his family and is credited for championing the collection of a single standardized collection of Muhammad’s messages from God, in what later became the Qur’an (Waldman, 2022). The Qur’an’s linguistic character and superiority are considered one of the key reasons the religion spread quickly in 7th Century Arabia (Saleh & Khalid, 2018). The aesthetic fascination with the Qur’an’s contents is an essential aspect of Islamic tradition. It is the Holy Scripture and the literal word of Allah that was revealed via the angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad (Saleh & Khalid, 2018). It represents the life and work of the Prophet as he sought to bring about a revolution that changed the world.
Uthman’s coalition was fragile, and he demolished existing social arrangements without reconstructing and stabilizing replacement ones in good time. He ignored the established rules that highlighted that leaders must not be authoritarian and must always consult others before making decisions (Bin Masood, 2018). The turmoil of this period led to the assassination of Uthman in 656, and the Islamic world gradually replaced kinship ties with a new social order of governance (Waldman, 2022). The rivalries between Islamic communities shaped the religion and its people for the remainder of the 7th Century.
The First and Second Fitnahs
The first discrete period of conflict occurred immediately following the assassination of Uthman. Competition for the caliphate arose between 656 and 661 when Mu’awiyah I ascended to leadership (Waldman, 2022). The skirmishes involved a three-way contest between the party of Mu’awiyah, who was the governor of Syria, Ali’s party in Iraq, and a coalition of high-ranking Quraysh families (Waldman, 2022). The argument was based on whether or not Uthman’s assassination was justified and whether his killing was to be avenged. The second fitnah occurred during the rule of Yazid I, who ruled between 680 and 683, and Yazid’s three successors (Waldman, 2022). It was, for the most part, a continuation of the first conflict by the descendants of the parties that engaged in the first disagreement. It was characterized by tribal divisions and infighting as different parties laid claim to leadership. The aforementioned fitnahs were characterized by increasing resistance to Muslim rule, as evidenced by the development of anti-Islamic religious movements. Large-scale military hostility was seen in areas west of Egypt as Islamic leaders struggled to maintain control.
Adb al-Malik ibn Marwan
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan took over control of the Islamic caliphate after the two periods of conflict. His rule spanned from 685 to the end of the 7th century (Waldman, 2022). It is worth noting that his rule was marked by the formation of a single Arab religious community that sought to maintain its control over protected non-Arab communities. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ordered the construction of the Dome of the Rock as a symbol of his supremacy in Jerusalem, which was a major center for the non-Muslim population. The site was significant to Christians and Jews given its association with biblical history. It later became a significant site for Muslims, who believed it marked the starting point of Muhammad’s midnight journey to heaven (Waldman, 2022). Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan also focused on highlighting the distinctiveness of Islam by encouraging the use of Arabic as the formal language of government and the production of unique coins to replace Sasanian and Byzantine coinage.
The Muslim Arab population was distinguished from the subject population because they were mainly soldiers and did not pay taxes. They also received money in the form of military pensions, which were later restricted to active service rather than rewards for past duties as the quantity of booty declined. It is worth pointing out that they maintained their distance from conquered non-Muslim communities, and restrictions were implemented to emphasize the indigenous people’s inferior status (Hoyland, 2020). Some of the physical limitations included the wearing of distinctive belts, not using saddles when riding animals, and not bearing arms (Hoyland, 2020). The locals were also restricted from promoting their religions, holding high office, or engaging in specific economic activities (Hoyland, 2020). The quest to maintain a distinction between Arab Muslims and the rest of the people endured beyond the 7th century.
Conclusion
The 7th Century of Islamic history impacted Muslims’ lives, cultures, traditions, and interactions with others in significant ways. The introduction of trade fostered relationships with other communities. The installation of garrisons facilitated the intermingling of cultures and the spread of the Arabic language to various parts of the world. The conflicts in the conquered regions led to the establishment of rules and Islamic traditions. The Qur’an served as a guide to Muslims by outlining the qualities that characterized an ideal life. The 7th Century of Muslim history defined contemporary views of the religion and its followers around the world.
References
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Enoch, P. (2018). Christianity and Islamic encounter in North Africa: Its ambivalence. International Journal of Religion and Human Relations, 10(1), 1–34. Web.
Hoyland, R. G. (2020). Were the Muslim Arab conquerors of the seventh-Century Middle East colonialists? Comparativ, 30(4), 262–273.
Saleh, E. A., & Khalid, H. M. (2018). A literary critical discourse on Quranic history in seventh-century Arabia. Jurnal Al-Tamaddun, 13(2), 15–25.
Waldman, M. R. (2022). Islamic world. Britannica. Web.