Introduction
In the 20th century, scientific progress widely promoted the development of the police. Discoveries in disciplines of biology, medicine, chemistry, and psychology united and formed in such a practice as forensic anthropology. According to Burns (2015), “forensic anthropology is best known as the discipline that applies the scientific knowledge of physical anthropology to the collection and analysis of legal evidence” (p. 1). An in-depth study will allow humanity not only to enhance the number of unsolved offenses but also minimize the number of crimes committed. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the basic concepts and methods of forensic science in the field of facial reconstruction.
Structural Features of the Head in the Context of Forensic Anthropology
Forensic anthropology is an ordered set of different scientific disciplines and practices. This branch of science is engaged not only in the research of the remains but also conducts the testing of living people if the specifics of the investigation require it. One of the most interesting of these branches can be considered odontology. According to Jeddy, Ravi, and Radhika (2017), “it has established as an indispensable science in medico-legal matters and in the identification of the dead person” (p. 115).
The primary specifics of odontology are recognition by human teeth, it still includes a set of techniques for analyzing by tongue, lips, and palate. It also consists of the compilation, updating, and preservation of individual statistics. Such statistics are usually a chronicle of visits to the dentist, various images of the lower half of the skull, and records of dentures and surgical operations. During the ontological process, experts use the most modern techniques and equipment.
In terms of the facial reconstruction process, odontology plays almost a key role. It is worth mentioning that face reconstruction mostly lies at the heart of forensic anthropology. This practice is necessary and used in the identification of the persons of the investigation. According to Taylor and Kieser (2016), it is impossible to recreate the face of the object of the investigation, but the main features can be reproduced. The processes of decomposition irreversibly affect the human body, but the teeth are the most enduring of its elements. Specialists identify the object of investigation by taking their imprints of the remaining teeth, which are unique to each human being. Further work with the data library allows experts to calculate the personality of the victim entirely.
The Basics of Bone Formation and Its Significance to Forensic Anthropology
Knowledge of the main components of the human bone and their analysis is essential for forensic science. The bone structure includes many elements, but only three of them are considered fundamental. Osteoblasts are the primary cells that create all the necessary compounds for bone synthesis. During this process, they age and gradually turn into osteocytes. According to Burr and Allen (2019), “today it is recognized that osteocytes coordinate the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in response to both mechanical and hormonal cues” (p. 49).
Osteoclasts are engaged in the consumption of excess bone material for further rearrangement. Not only is the composition of the bones essential but also their size. According to David and Lewis (2018), skeleton height can give a general idea of the age, ethnicity, and sex of the object of the investigation. It is this data during the anthropological process that the specialist is trying to get. Of much higher interest to specialists is always the human skull and its features.
The process of recognition by the human skull is a key and paramount task of any forensic anthropologist. The human head contains about thirty different symmetrical and asymmetrical bones. The structural features and the position of each of them relative to each other can tell a lot about the personality and circumstances of the death of the object of investigation. Also, this method allows the specialist to identify the victim or the offender much faster relative to other practices, which is a great psychological factor.
According to Burns (2015), “families of missing persons say that they experience a sense of relief when the bodies of loved ones are finally identified” (p. 2). Time is a crucial aspect in the investigation, and the competent ability to analyze the skull can speed up this process several times.
The Main Muscles of the Face and Their Meaning in Facial Reconstruction
The preserved muscle tissues are of particular value to a forensic anthropologist. In the facial segment of the human body, there are many muscles, and they are usually divided into two types. According to Westbrook and Varacallo (2019), “the facial muscles serve 2 major functions for the body: mastication and facial expression” (para. 3). One of the largest and most important of the muscles described above is occipitofrontalis and temporalis.
The first one is responsible for the eyebrows movement and joints with the neck muscles, and the second one is the main element of the chewing mechanism. Both of these types of tissues are a source of DNA samples. Further DNA analyses provide accurate information about the personality of the object of investigation. Also, the appearance and degree of conservation of the muscles can tell a lot about the deceased. By analyzing these properties, the expert can find out the approximate time of death, the external environment, whether the offender tried to get rid of the body or not. Such data is essential for investigation with others, along with information obtained from bones and teeth.
Modern forensic anthropology generally consists of many practices, of which the main ones are medicine, biology, and chemistry. Knowledge in the field of the structure of teeth, bones, and muscles allows specialists in some sense to return to the past and restore the picture of crime. A competent criminologist can fully solve the case using only the data obtained from the head of the object of the investigation. These techniques make it possible to accurately prove the guilt of the offender and punish him by law. Many current scientific discoveries will also find their application in forensic anthropology of the future and experts will even be able to prevent the commission of crimes.
The Effect of Informational Technologies on Legal Landscape in the US
Progress in information technologies and the impact of the creation of the Internet have dramatically affected the status of personal data at the social and state levels. This has contributed to the creation of mostly innovative legislative acts all over the world, including in North America. Some of them, such as Megan’s law, were accepted positively by society, others, like the USA PATRIOT Act, were recognized ambiguously and even negatively. According to Burns (2015), “This may be the Informational Age, but the world is still struggling with the practical and responsible use of information” (p. 2). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the impact of these two laws on our society and the legal landscape in the US.
The Duality of Megan’s Law
The so-called Megan’s law was established in the late 90s and expanded in the second half of the 2000s. According to Horowitz (2015), the main and explicit objective of this act was to obviate sex offenses against women and children. The essence of the law was that a constant data bank was compiled for the criminal, which was used to inform residents of adjacent houses. It was understood that such publicity and method of warning would reduce the incidence of sexual offenses. Studies conducted by many specialists show disappointing statistics on the practice and effectiveness of this law.
Despite the complex system of registration, constant supervision, and appearances, the number of cases of this type of crime has not decreased. Also, judging by the statistics, the number of sex offenders has increased. According to Horowitz (2015), there is a paradoxical situation where the amount of registrations is growing simultaneously with a drop in the quantity of child sexual abuse crimes. It is also worth noting that with the introduction of Megan’s law, authorities began to act more aggressively when it comes to this type of crime. Despite all its benefits in terms of information, this enactment was not able to fulfill its primary goal to reduce the number of sex crimes and criminals. Moreover, this law increased the pressure and the level of violence in the police camps.
The Inconsistency of the USA PATRIOT Act
This controversial law was introduced after the notorious events in North America in 2001. This act implied much greater powers for the police and internal intelligence. The original purpose of this law was to predict and prevent such catastrophes. This led to the fact that the government secretly and informally started to monitor each of its residents through means of communication directly. According to Greason (2017), methods prescribed in a hurry led to an invasion of personal life.
Frightened then, the American public decided to trust the highest ranks completely. After this, there were many scandals and high-profile leaks about the activities of the US government. This law forever changed the view of ordinary people on the state throughout the world.
The essence of the contradiction of the USA PATRIOT Act is that it conflicts with the 4th Amendment. The law destroyed the border between the citizen and the state, establishing the absolute power of the second over the first. Many Americans have a distrust of modern technology and media giants, which is noticeable in connection with the advent of systems such as Tor. Later, amendments to the protection of personal information were added to this law.
According to Greason (2017), “the USA Patriot act amendments continue to beleaguer the struggle to balance the power of the intelligence gathering agencies with that of maintaining civil liberties” (p. 6). Nevertheless, due to the practice of this law, the government as a whole lost public confidence. With the increasing integration of social networks and gadgets, the tension between these two camps will only increase.
Conclusion
Entering the digital age, humankind was not afraid to use new technologies to improve our society. Digital innovations immediately went into the circulation of legislative practice. Nonetheless, these modern acts fulfill only their secondary functions, and some even violate the country’s Constitution. This specific inconsistency was demonstrated by the example of Megan’s law and the USA PATRIOT Act. They showed that the authorities and society have not yet fully realized the influence and importance of digital technologies in relation to lawmaking. Perhaps in the future, the public and the authorities will be able to come to a solution to these new complicated problems.
References
Greason, D. (2017). USA PATRIOT act’s impact on information gathering techniques regarding the intelligence community. Web.
Horowitz, E. (2015). Protecting our kids? How sex offenders laws are failing us. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Burns, K. R. (2015). Forensic anthropology training manual. New York, NY: Routledge.
Burr, D. B., & Allen, M. R. (2019). Basic and applied bone biology (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Academic Press.
David, T. J., & Lewis, J. (2018). Forensic odontology: Principles and practice. Decatur, GA: Academic Press.
Jeddy, N., Ravi, S., & Radhika, T. (2017). Current trends in forensic odontology. Journal of Forensic Dental Sciences, 9(3) 115-119.
Taylor, J., & Kieser, J. (2016). Forensic odontology: Principles and practice. Chichester, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons.
Westbrook, K. E., & Varacallo, M. (2019). Anatomy, head and neck, facial muscles. Web.