Chapter 4
Slavery in the 18th century was characterized by an array of factors that had an influence on it. According to Franklin and Higginbotham (2010), there was no single experience for all African slaves in the American colonies, as it depended on local conditions, colonizing nations, geography, and other aspects. However, it is possible to discern two major trends that prevailed in the 18th century.
First of all, the majority of slaves came directly from diverse ethnical groups of the African continent, and most of them were male. At the same time, the portion of American-born slaves was on the increase and contributed to the multiracial nature of the population (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). The period in question was characterized by cultural syncretism, meaning that African and European cultures were blending, creating a new form. As a result, the transformation of Africans into African Americans began, even though it was different at each location.
As far as particular territories are concerned, it is possible to examine them in the context of slave populations and slave occupations. New England was characterized by fewer African servants than any other part of America, but they played an important role in the region’s economic activities (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). They worked in skilled trades while being increasingly used as body servants. The so-called “Negro Election Day” became a festival tradition in the area as well, forging a sense of community and secured loyalty (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). This period in New England demonstrates significant levels of cultural syncretism, as African experience merged with European expertise.
As for the Mid-Atlantic colonies, New York had the largest number of slaves throughout the whole century. This territory also exhibited syncretism in the form of Pinkster, which is a traditional Dutch celebration mixed with African music and dances (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). At the same time, the middle of the 18th century is characterized by a rapid expansion of servitude, caused by an increase in grain production (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Slave purchasing became available to non-elite white colonists, which contributed to the number of servants overall growth.
Nevertheless, there were already concerns regarding the morality of servitude. The emergence of such a tendency in Pennsylvania led to the early manumission movement. Furthermore, the first schools aiming at educating children of African origins were opened in this area (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). In general, a significant number of African slaves in the Mid-Atlantic region led to the quicker acknowledgment of their rights.
The Chesapeake Region did not demonstrate a similar level of acceptance. Most Africans did not speak proper English, which caused significant problems in adjusting to life in the new community. According to Franklin and Higginbotham (2010), about 25% of slaves died within one year following their arrival in America. Trying to escape such difficult conditions, African servants attempted to flee in organized groups, but most were caught by white troops. On the other hand, the local population desperately needed more slaves, which is why the region imported more women, attempting to increase the African population naturally.
Cultural syncretism existed in the Lower South and Eastern Seaboard, as well. According to Franklin and Higginbotham (2010), African slaves managed to teach their masters some rice growing techniques, leading to larger amounts of exported rice. The tendency was even stronger in Louisiana, where the number of African servants was relatively small, and cultural autonomy was promoted. As a result, people of African origin managed to form an alliance with a Native American tribe in Natchez (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Overall, this period is characterized by the emergence of cultural syncretism in the colonies leading to the acknowledgment of African people and their culture.
Chapter 5
By the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, a paradox emerged regarding the image of slavery. The white population of the colonies freely used racial images and demanded representation from the Crown. The revolutionary tendencies in society aimed at uniting people of European origin, calling for absolute freedom (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Nevertheless, the concept was disregarded in respect to the African slaves, as the masters’ grip on them was becoming tighter. Furthermore, the paradox became evident to some people who believed that owning slaves contradicted an oppressed white colonist’s image. African slaves from the Boston area were in the vanguard of the freedom movement. As a result, there were protests that ended in massacres in some parts of the colonies (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Generally speaking, this paradox highlighted the disparity between the way white colonists perceived themselves and how they behaved in reality.
The situation was aggravated when the American Revolutionary War started. Slaves of African origin took an active part in the warfare on both sides (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). According to Franklin and Higginbotham (2010), they participated in the battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill. Nevertheless, it entailed additional difficulties for the colonies, as they hesitated to arm African people. When the Continental Army was formed in the course of the war, a policy was introduced not to accept black soldiers (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). As a result, interracial tensions in the American colonies grew amid the War of Independence.
Following the new development, the British decided to use the circumstances to their own advantage. The Dunmore Proclamation promised African slaves in the colonies freedom if they were to join the Crown in battle (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). This appeal led to the formation of “black regiments” in the British Army, which could determine the outcome of the war. As a way of retaliation, the Virginia Act promised to pardon all slaves who returned to the colonists’ side in ten days (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Franklin and Higginbotham (2010) state that George Washington faced a difficult situation, as he had to react while not rejecting his prior course. Accordingly, the previous policy was only partially reversed, allowing free Africans to return to the Continental Army. Overall, the Revolutionary War entailed further tension in the relations between masters and their slaves.
There was increasing competition between the Patriots and the Crown over the support of black soldiers. General Clinton of the British Army promised protection to all slaves who would seek refuge by his side. At the same time, all Africans still serving the colonists would be captured and sold. In response, American states began to execute more liberal policies regarding black soldiers’ involvement in the war. According to Franklin and Higginbotham (2010), all former colonies, but Georgia and South Carolina, endorsed the enlistment of black soldiers. Furthermore, the number of people of African descent in the Continental Army reached 5.000 soldiers, most of whom were integrated into regular units. However, some of them had a separate regiment consisting of black soldiers (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). This policy may be considered one of the key points that shaped the outcome of the conflict.
As the United States emerged victorious, African people who fought for the British were sent to the plantations in the Caribbean. Free Africans went to England or Nova Scotia, trying to escape punishment. As for the American side, the movement for the freedom of slaves continued after the war, gaining strength in different areas of the United States. Generally, it is possible to consider the Revolutionary War as one of the turning points in this context.
Chapter 6
In the fallout of the American Revolutionary War, the movement toward the abolition of African Slaves gradually gained importance. While this tendency was not present throughout the United States, the situation improved significantly in the Mid-Atlantic region and New England. According to Franklin and Higginbotham (2010), even though the institute of slavery persisted, there were not any servants in the Northern part of the country. Nevertheless, the problem remained in other regions, namely west of the southern Appalachians (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010).
Following the spirit of the time, black communities began their development fueled by the abolition movement. The described process was especially evident in urban areas, mostly in the country’s north and the East Coast in general (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Employment opportunities for African Americans varied depending on a particular location, and the situation was aggravated by the surge of European immigration in the United States. Moreover, despite substantial measures aiming at the abolition of slavery, there was still a considerable level of economic disparity and social inequality.
Black communities developed especially quickly in Boston and Philadelphia following emancipation laws. Simultaneously, slavery persisted in a heavy manner in the area of New York, where it remained legal until 1799 (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). African Americans in Pennsylvania created first black institutions, but the majority of their occupations remained unskilled (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Nevertheless, such institutions became the cornerstones of their communities and encouraged African Americans to partake in cultural exchange.
In addition to acquired civic liberties, black communities were shortly recognized by the Church. Franklin and Higginbotham (2010) say that the first Black Churches were established in both Southern and Northern parts of the United States. Members of the African American communities were primarily attracted to Methodists and Baptists, as those churches stood against slavery. However, Black Churches gained additional importance over time and managed to secure their own positions, providing equal access to all members of the congregations. Additionally, free African Americans played an important in the Louisiana Purchase. As early antislavery policies appeased these communities, they voted for Federalists, and the Party’s Northern base promoted the growth of the cities in Louisiana.
When the war of 1812 began, African Americans of the North willingly joined the American army. As Franklin and Higginbotham (2010) say, separate black units were created in different parts of the United States, and 2500 soldiers of color helped build fortifications at the front line. Moreover, African Americans played a role of paramount importance in the Battle of New Orleans and made a substantial contribution to the outcome of the war. Nevertheless, there were those who still chose the British side, having been promised freedom, as slavery was not yet abolished nationwide and persisted in some states (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010).
However, fugitive slaves looked for other options, which is why the movement for Black Colonization emerged. Its supporters wanted to live freely outside the United States, and many of them wanted to return to Africa for missionary or other purposes. Furthermore, it was at that time that The Haitian Revolution occurred after years of struggle, making it the first black state on Earth (Franklin & Higginbotham, 2010). Overall, this period showed a significant increase in the African American community’s recognition and laid the foundation for the final stages of their fight for absolute freedom.
Reference
Franklin, J. H., & Higginbotham, E. (2010). From slavery to freedom: A history of African Americans (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.