Introduction
Criminological theories have evolved over the centuries, observing patterns of crime around the world. In particular, comparative criminology was formed, the main purpose of which is to consider and study the similarities and differences in crimes of different countries and cultures. The characteristics of crime in different countries are influenced by many factors, including traditions, legislation, and history.
Different theories provide different approaches to the study of similarities and differences, and they all have advantages and disadvantages. This fact makes it necessary to study and compare the situation in the world from different points of view. Moreover, different perspectives are suitable for various environments and criminological circumstances.
While criminology considers the causes of crime from psychological, social, political, economic aspects, the theories presented also emphasize different aspects. Thus, comparative criminology uses criminological theories to describe the similarities and differences in crimes in different countries of the world, depending on their characteristic features.
Comparative Criminology
Comparative criminology seeks to understand the reasons and patterns of crime across different countries and cultures. Major criminological theories are able to explain the similarities and differences in crimes around the world as they examine the causes of their occurrence through social aspects. Different states have various legislation, which depends on the criminological problems existing in society. The reasons for committing crimes and manifestations of deviant behavior are described by criminological theories and can also be applied to study the social structure of society. While the use of statistics makes it difficult to describe the similarities and differences in crime across countries due to various factors, criminological theories operate with more general patterns. This fact makes a comparative theoretical approach to criminology possible and useful.
Strain Theories
First of all, human behavior in various cultures can manifest itself both in accordance with social norms and in violation of them. In particular, the various cultural values of a society and its goals may not coincide with the means of achieving them available to society. This factor is a subject for consideration by strain theories. Conformity, thus, occurs when “there is little strain exists between goals and the means to achieve those goals (“Strain theories final,” 2021).
Agnew (1999) notes that “communities may affect crime rates by influencing the goals theta residents pursue and the ability of residents to achieve this goal through legitimate channels” (p. 61). Such goals can be an economic success, a certain social status, as well as the achievement of equal and fair treatment. In relation to the causes, as well as the differences and similarities in crimes around the world, this theory can be used to explain how the social strain characteristic of different cultures affects the situation.
In particular, countries set different social goals for people but do not provide them with the means to achieve them. Since social strain can meet different responses in the form of conformism, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, or rebellion, various goals and means become social norms (Merton, 1938). Agnew (1999) also emphasizes that communities are characterized by different levels of strain, which affects the crime rate and the formation of the response to strain. Thus, the data applying these theories can be used to study the presence or level of strain that is present in different communities or cultures and its causes, which explains the differences or similarities in crimes. Thus, it can be assumed that countries with similar strain levels have the same crime rates. However, the reasons for the social strain can vary, which requires a deeper statistical analysis.
Conflict Theories
Social structure theories focus on consideration of the reasons for the crime in relation to social disorganization and deviation. Examining the similarities and differences in crimes is possible through the study of communities, in particular in terms of racial composition and politics of different countries. For example, “Section Two: Theories of Crime Causation” gives an example of the assumption by the sociologist Wilson that the poverty and deteriorating situation of African American communities at the end of the 20th century is the result of underdeveloped policies which offer benefits to these populations and growing racism (pp. 220-221). This claim may also be associated with social conflict theory, as Wilson also emphasizes that African Americans view Whites as antagonists (“Section two: Theories of crime causation,” p. 221).
The conflict, in this case, arises as a result of disagreement with the fact that the privileged class, in particular on the basis of race, determines the norm. In this way, conflict criminology describes ” how the control of the political and economic system affects the administration of criminal justice” (“Social conflict theory,” p. 290). In particular, the theory will explain how members of the less privileged classes receive more severe punishment for lesser crimes.
Critical Race Theory
Racism and social structure can thus also be used as a theoretical framework to explain the differences and similarities in crime around the world. Hayle. Wortley & Tanner (2016) indicate in their study that “race attracts police attention” (p. 342). Conflict theory and critical race theory, in this case, explain that in comparison with Whites, Blacks are more often perceived as prone to crime, which causes increased attention of the police. Moreover, racial profiling is an increasingly acute problem in North America and Europe (Hayle et al., 2016). Racial profiling is based on stereotypes biases of police officers rather than reasonable grounds (“Critical theories”). The manifestation of racism in the West can be considered a legacy of colonial history. The criminal justice system of Canada, in particular, developed during the colonial era and inherited features characteristic of that period. In this connection, we can also identify the emergence of denial of racial communities belonging to the White society and the formation of their own culture (“Chapter 2: Concepts”). Racism can also take on institutional and structural forms, while states are not even aware of it.
Conflict theories and critical race theory, in this case, can explain why in certain countries there is a different levels of crimes committed by representatives of racial or ethnic minorities. However, this task is complicated by the absence and often impossibility of collecting reliable statistics due to racial profiling and institutional racism. The Canadian Association of Chiefs of Police announced an initiative to record statistics on the participation of Indigenous peoples in Canada’s criminal justice system (“Collection of data on Indigenous and ethnocultural groups,” 2020). Thus, statistics may not always indicate a low level of social conflict and related crimes in the country due to the developed institutional and structural racism. Nevertheless, conflict theory best illustrates the similarities which exist in various countries where such a phenomenon is present. Most Western countries that have adapted the features of the colonial past are currently working to include racial and ethnic minorities in the criminal justice system. However, this activity is often associated with social conflict based on the alienation of communities from major societies, which can affect crime rates.
Control Theories and Rational Choice Theory
Social control theories explain how relationships between people within society and the community prevent the manifestation of antisocial behavior. According to the theory of social bond, “deviant and criminal acts result when a person’s bond to society is weak or broken” (“Control theory”). So, attachments, values, and beliefs of a person make him or her not commit a crime. Another theory that illustrates control by the criminal justice system is the theory of deterrence. According to this theory, the expectation of punishment, which can take various forms, affects the prevention of the commission of a crime (“Chapter 4: Classical Theories of Deviance”). Thus, the criminal justice system can directly influence criminal actions through legislation and the punitive system.
As well as the theory of social bond, this assumption describes what limiting factors exist in society and the state to prevent antisocial behavior. Thus, criminological theories can explain differences or similarities in crimes through the description of the punitive system of different countries and the social relations characteristic of cultures. For example, countries with stricter penalties can reduce the level of certain crimes due to the fear of the punitive system in society. Cultures in which social relationships are less valued, and there is alienation between people are more likely to experience increased crime rates.
However, these factors can be neglected by the aspects that rational choice theory describes. According to this theory, a person commits a crime if he sees a certain benefit in him that outweighs the fear of punishment or social censure (“Chapter 4: Classic theories of deviance”). This circumstance can also be associated with social or psychological conditions, as well as situational opportunities. Despite the fact that a person can commit crimes under the influence of a significant group, rational choice is more often characteristic of economic crimes for the purpose of material gain. Thus, comparative criminology can also explain differences or similarities by considering the conditions and reasons for which the crime was committed. In particular, rational choice theory examines which conditions specific to a particular country or culture most affect the assessment of the consequences of a crime by a person.
Mental Illness and Crime
Crime in all countries of the world is also associated with punishment, most often with imprisonment. Criminological theories can help explain the differences and similarities in crime in terms of mental health. “Chapter 3: Mental Illness” notes that “mentally ill people are not only likely to be involved in some type of public alteration or minor offense, but also a higher risk of victimization than most other people” (p. 98). Insufficient attention and support from the community often result in mentally unhealthy people going to jail. Nevertheless, more and more researchers note the fact that isolation often becomes the main method of punishment in correctional institutions, which worsens the condition of mentally ill prisoners (“Critical policy analysis“). Criminological theories, in this case, also pay attention to such factors as the psychology of people to explain the causes of crimes. In this respect, differences or similarities in crimes in countries can be described by the level of attention to mental diseases, their stigmatization, as well as the system of punishments adopted in the country.
Queer Criminology
For comparative criminology, it is also important how widespread the desire for a hetero-normative society is in a particular society or culture. Bill C-6 specifically mandates banning activities that force people to undergo conversion therapy (“Bill C-6,” 2020). This event suggests that in Canada, there was a certain stereotypical attitude towards representatives of the LGBTQ + community as deviant members of society. This assumption can also be a source of social conflict and lead to an increase in the number of crimes. As in the case of mental illness, representatives of sexual minorities can experience pressure from society, which can result in both crimes and victimization. In this situation, comparative criminology and queer criminology can describe the differences in similar crimes in the world. For example, in countries in which the culture is more traditional and religious, representatives of sexual minorities may more often become participants in criminal episodes.
Conclusion
While there are other criminological theories explaining the causes of crime, including social learning theories and interactionist theories, the theories described most clearly characterize the topic under study. In particular, comparative criminology focuses on the study of various factors, including the legislation of a particular country, to identify the features of the criminological environment. Social conflict and social strain are the most important aspects, as they have a wide impact on modern developed regions. Criminological theories also describe in different ways the factors that restrict or motivate people to commit a crime. Moreover, they also touch upon aspects of discrimination, which is most relevant in modern conditions. Comparative criminology applies different criminological theories to describe the criminological characteristics of countries. These observations can later be compared to identify factors that are characteristic of a particular state or culture.
References
Agnew, R. (1999). A general strain theory of community differences in crime rates. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36(2).
Bill C-6. (2020). Parliament of Canada. Web.
Chapter 2: Concepts.
Chapter 3: Mental Illness.
Chapter 4: Classical theories of deviance and their influence on modern jurisprudence.
Collection of data on Indigenous and ethno-cultural groups in Canada’s official police-reported crime statistics. (2020). Statistics Canada. Web.
Conflict theories of crime (Winter 2021) [PowerPoint slides].
Control theory (Winter 2021) [PowerPoint slides].
Critical policy analysis: Structured intervention units [Term paper].
Critical theories (Winter 2021) [PowerPoint slides].
Hayle, S., Wortley, S., & Tanner, J. (2016). Race, street life, and policing: Implications for racial profiling. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 58(3), 322-353.
Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3.
Social conflict theory (Chapter 9).
Strain theories final (Winter 2021) [PowerPoint slides].