Introduction
The first thing to note is that these three pioneers were contemporaries, working in what was an intellectual quagmire to ferret out the truths of psychology and especially psychological treatment. They were not far removed from the days when anyone who was different was isolated, beaten or burnt at the stake, unless, of course they happened to be royalty.
“Among these giants, Freud is indisputably the most towering monolith. It was Freud’s pioneering use of the term “the I” (“das Ich” in his native German, which was then translated into the Latin “ego”) that brought “ego” into common parlance and popular interest to the process of self-consciousness.” (Bridle, Susan and Edelstein, Amy 2008) Adler differed with Freud and developed the more holistic approach of self-determination. Jung became involved in religious and spiritual studies and it led him to investigate the psyche as a whole phenomenon of the universal consciousness, or overmind.
Main body
Freud is, by far, the most famous outside academic circles, though Adler and Jung are familiar to most educated people. Freud is often called the “father” of modern psychoanalysis, which may have an intentional double meaning, considering his theories of childhood sexual fantasies. Freud did develop the original theories of the conscious and unconscious and subconscious; the ego, id and superego; the libidinal and aggressive drives; the Oedipus and Electra complexes; the defense mechanisms of the mind being, for him, what drove people to whatever they did. Freud’s ideas were, for a long time, totally unaccepted in scientific and medical circles.
Finally he gathered a group of people around him and they became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association. Psychoanalysis—“Freud’s innovative treatment method in which the patient is encouraged to speak freely about memories, associations, fantasies and dreams and which relies on Freud’s theories of interpretation—was Freud’s noble cause and, for a time, it was Alfred Adler’s and Carl Jung’s as well.” (Bridle, Susan and Edelstein, Amy 2008)
Freud and Adler met in 1900 and Adler was the president of the association until their differences drove him to resign and start his own school. He differed with Freud concerning the importance of childhood sexual trauma, whether real or fantasized, and he believed in a more holistic approach to psychology.
“Of those who broke away from the master, the most important were Alfred Adler ( 1870-1937), founder of Individual Psychology, and Carl Jung ( 1875- ), founder of Analytical Psychology.” (Chaplin & Krawiec, 1962, p. 58) Adler started the school of Individual Psychology based upon his theory of self-determination. He could not agree with Freud on the importance of individual drives and psychological mechanisms. He believed that each individual controlled his or her life by their choice of how to interpret their environment. In other words, each person can choose the meaning to give whatever happens to them and act accordingly.
I have to agree with this from my own experience. As a child, like most children, I was told that I must control the expression of my anger or my sorrow, and sometimes even my joy. What they did not tell me was that I did not have to be angry. Yes anger is an instant emotional reaction to perceived harm, but once examined, one does not have to stay angry. It is all a matter of interpretation. If I believe that the person who insults me means to hurt me, then I will be angry. However, if I understand that this person is, in turn, reacting to something which may have no connection with me than I am no longer angry. Adler believed in the inherent good in human beings.
Jung met Freud in 1907 and for several years they compared notes and shared information. However, Jung became interested in religion and spirituality and it was then he developed the idea of universal psyche and the collective unconscious called the “overmind”.
One very strong difference between Adler and Freud was what they though was the central driving force in human psychology. Freud saw sexuality everywhere, even in infants. Adler saw powerlessness instead. It was his idea that most problem stem from either our feelings of inferiority or lack of confidence or our struggle to gain power. (Hoffman, 1996, p. 83).
Jung and Feud differed on their opinions of the driving force also, and Adler saw the power within the human being, while Jung was looking outward to some invisible force. Adler was actually the most maverick of the three, being at heart, a socialist. “Unlike Freud and Jung, who remained identified primarily with issues of adult personality, Adler’s name became more closely linked with child guidance in family and school.” (Hoffman, 1996, p. 124).
In a gross simplification, Freud centered his theories in biology, Adler centered his in the social environment and Jung centered his in the spiritual unseen universal forces. Jung stayed closer to Freud’s theories than did Adler, but he differed on their origins. He was more spiritual and more academic than either Freud or Adler, even though Adler was actually a doctor. Adler developed a conversations style of cooperative psychoanalysis and documented that, but it was not attached to any written literature. Jung was immersed in literary research, especially anything which touched upon his area of concentration.
“His profound understanding of human nature and his vast knowledge of mythology, anthropology, and literature have led many to regard him as one of the world’s great contemporary scholars.” (Chaplin & Krawiec, 1962, p. 74) “One of the most powerful factors in the collective unconscious is man’s religious instinct.
Jung, therefore, encourages his patients to strengthen their religious sense and search for their souls. A cure is not achieved until the patient is able to integrate and harmonize the personal and collective unconscious and to arrive at a working synthesis of the complementary polarities which divide him from his true self.” (Chaplin & Krawiec, 1962, p. 324).
In simple terms, Freud asked patients to explore their sexuality and their dreams; Adler asked patients to explore their interpretations of the worlds and the meaning of their reactions to it; and Jung asked his patients to explore the meaning of their connection to the universal mind and to seek the meaning of life and their true selves.
The division of the therapeutic process which Jung most commonly employs is that of the analytic and reductive stage, where causes are explored, and the prospective and synthetic stage, where trends for the future are considered, but in one of his essays the two stages are sub-divided into four–confession, explanation or elucidation, education and transformation. (Dry, 1961, p. 142).
One interesting side note is that all three of these psychological pioneers were influenced by the same literature, of which philosophy was closely connected. It was a time when the sciences were not very differentiated, and were actually not very well defines at all. Nietzsche’s philosophy was particularly important during this period.
“Nietzsche’s historical importance for psychology was his insight into the necessity of penetrating beneath consciousness to examine that aspect of human existence that was emotional, motivational, and primal. His notion that these factors were central in human existence and that all else was secondary was of crucial importance in influencing Freud. In short, he opened an avenue of human inquiry that had never really been opened before — an avenue that was to be walked by Freud. Jung, Adler, and generations of psychologists after them.” (Lana, 1976, p. 55).
Conclusion
Today, most psychology draws upon the theories of all three of these individuals. We know that sexuality is a powerful force, and that it is responsible from many things which humans do, good or bad. We also know that fantasy and dreams indicate real fears and goals. Added to this is the modern knowledge of hormones and other true biological factors and Freud really had a lot of it right. Adler developed the most useful therapy for children, and the least damaging.
Self-determination is absolutely a driving force behind human psychology. Jung developed treatments which work, and there is no way we can discount his ideas of a common overmind or universal consciousness. In fact, the most common three religions call this God, Who’s mind created us all. If a student of any social science can only read about a few theories of psychology, perhaps these three should be included.
References
Bridle, Susan and Edselstein, Amy, 2008, EnlightenNext Magazine on line, Web.
Chaplin, J. P., & Krawiec, T. S. (1962). Systems and Theories of Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 2008. Web.
Dry, A. M. (1961). The Psychology of Jung A Critical Interpretation. London: Methuen. 2008. Web.
Hoffman, E. (1996). The Drive for Self: Alfred Adler and the Founding of Individual Psychology. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 2008. Web.
Lana, R. E. (1976). The Foundations of Psychological Theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2008. Web.