Introduction
Coolie labor was in high demand in European, Americas and their colonies during the 19th and 20th century. They were needed to work in plantation farming, factories and road construction. Most of them came from Asia, specifically China, India, Japan and Java. Some of the Coolies were shipped to French, German, Dutch colonies, Caribbean and other colonies, contributing Coolie global migration.
Coolie roots have continued to shape modern world in many facets. It is obvious in religion, cuisine, art, and fashion design (Hoerder, 278). The strong presence of Buddhism and its practices and artistic impressions of designs in United States is an example of how Coolie history has denoted its culture across the world.
Coolie migration
Coolie or cooly was a popular term which used to indicate unskilled laborer or artisan class of Asiatic origin. The derivation of the term is far from conclusive.
For instance, Dr. Engelbert Kampfer, in his book, History of Japan notes that “Coolies” or dock laborers, as commonly known in England, played an important role in aiding unload heavy packed Dutch merchant ships on dock at Nagasaki, Japan (Broeck, 30).
In modern times, the word is used synonymously to refer to natives of China and India who left their homelands under contracts to work in plantation fields or act as laborers in international plantations across the world.
The organization, in which the coolies were amassed, betrothed and transported to their various destinations, grew and developed into a fully-fledged trade accordingly; some governments for instance USA and Spain started acting to legally prosecute the perpetrators behind the scheme. A coolie migration is therefore, as a result of undeviating off-springs of discontinuance of slavery.
The shortage of labor in Europe, America and their colonies during the colonial period highlighted the need for colonialist to look for cheap labor across the world (Yun, 40).
The colonialist viewed that white men were physically unfit in working in tropical plantations acquired because of climate effects and widespread tropical diseases. Hence, Negroes and Asian slaves were seen as an option to enhance their course. Coolies for instance were lured in foreign lands by nice promises, which never existed, to strengthen the economic well being of British and Americas colonizers.
India and China was an opportunity for free source of labor because of high- population rate, rigid civilization and culture of farming (Broeck, 28). Hence colonialist exploited these factors by use of force only to achieve their selfish interests. Strategies instituted to absorb more workforces for their interests included a provision of offers which was deemed attractive. The first recognition of the importance of Coolies in facilitating economic growth in colonies was in 1844 (Northrup, 39).
The British colonialist in Guiana needed more labors for its plantation farming hence delivery of Chinese coolies led to widespread Chinese emigration. Consequently, Peruvian planters, since separating from mother country had limited the slavery and thus to increase its labor force china was an option.
Peru’s Slave agents began exploiting the free labor by docking on China’s coastland with a view of capturing coolies to work in their plantations. Cuba and Havana followed the same suit later (Hoerder, 298). The working conditions for Coolies were threatening. They worked for long hours, under harassment and low wages. However, what they liked was clothing, lodging and food provided by their masters (Yun, 124).
Contemporary Coolie Culture
Coolie culture has been evident through their heritage and genealogy across the United States. It shows itself in various forms. From United States, Latin America, Europe to Asia and Africa. United States for instance has been a “melting point” with the influence of Asian culture. This is because of Americas accommodating nature of a diverse population and distinct cultural origins hence, the coolie is deeply ingrained in the American society (Okihiro, 208).
During the 19th and 20th century, Coolie inhabitants of United States generally worked in sugar plantations and on railroads. Hence, this made it possible in embracing their unique and distinct culture and practices in the mainstream American society. Coolie, in the US, were typically shipped from Asia, a strong foundation of Asian American culture is a norm in influencing Coolie heritage in the US society.
Religious realignment is what resulted in Coolie immigration to the United States. Most Asia Americans, descendants of coolie heritage, have embraced various religious beliefs and practices. Northrup (237) notes that, the major Asian religions found in some parts of Asia such as Taoism, Buddhism and Confucians now forms part of mainstream religious groups of contemporary America.
The Asian American established their first temple in San Francisco during the 19th century and has all along absorbed non- Asian community’s faithful’ as alleged by Yun( 273). Further, Buddhist practices have been part of daily lives of faithful by having a healing power through the concept of meditation. Meditation is a form of Buddhism practice; it is a type of relaxation which helps in the efficient functioning of mind and relieves stress, thereby improving well-being of a person.
Various groups have spanned across major cities in the United States recognizing its effectiveness. Consequently, Zen, which is a form of Buddhism stressing on meditation to realize enlightenment has found itself in popular books such as; Zen and Art of Writing written by Ray Bradbury and The Three Pillars of Zen written by Roshi Kapleau, as noted by Hoerder (301).
Art shapes the society in fostering heritage and ethnic identity. According to McDonald (60), the Coolie heritage has transformed the world art in different perspectives. From literary, buildings patterns, aesthetics to movies and music. Asian American, writer, Amy Tan has revolutionized the art through her work in the United States.
Similarly, Yun (23) points out that,Asian Americans have written books with themes relating to challenges of living In the United States. Issues such as romantic relationships, racism and immigration affecting the society have largely been addressed.
Asian American has also changed the education sector in the United States. A number of educational institutions across the United States have recognized the importance of Asian American studies. The Asian American studies have formed educational and political origin in ethnicity studies.
University of California at Berkely, for example, provides a number of courses in Asian American studies. Besides, it has established the first recognized department in the country for Asian American Studies. In addition, the Asian students have come together under the umbrella “Association for Asian American Studies” has grown and embraced nationally as an academic society with yearly gatherings.
Consequently, Many Asians Americans have simultaneously won national accolades and gained prominence in America society. For instance Maya Lin, an artist and sculptor, is credited for creating a distinctive and beautiful “Vietnam Veterans memorial” found in Washington. Feng Shui, a code of aesthetics, has been embraced by America hence has been part of American culture guiding the arrangement of furniture in a room, positioning of buildings and garden organization (Yun, 273).
Moreover, calligraphy, bonsai trees and sand gardens is common in American society as a sign of beauty (Yun, 279). Communication has improved by borrowing idioms from coolie heritage. Idioms such as “chop chop” which denotes “to hurry” are in common communication in the United States. Besides communication, Coolie has been a term which has been associated with humor in stressing communication.
Fashion designs have been on the increase. Asian hats, T-shirts among other attires are in demand. Fashion has been enhanced to appeal to a larger population through advertisement and marketing strategies. Popularity of Asian Americans items such as Coolie hats and lamps among others has attracted other non Asians through advertisement.
Yun assess that, individual’s beauty of Americans has been embraced by Asian tattoos (305). Young Americans and tattoo lovers have tattooed their bodies with Chinese symbols that include; jewelry displaying fade of dragons or Buddhist malas (Yun, 236).
Coolie Image
The distinct ethnicities of United States form a national fabric. The comparison of images of Indians and Africans has heavily been borrowed from Asians on a more negative side. The Asian are feared and threatened because, it seems that one day they would physically and culturally flood the United States (Okihiro, 33). The fear of Asians by the society means a tendency of sidelining them in important decision making, particularly political decisions in the United States.
Model of minority and yellow peril have been all enduring images of Asian Americans. The idea of yellow peril which implies a threat to national politics, the label of model minority upholds the status quo (Yun, XIII). Yellow peril implies negative images whereas Model minority gives a picture of positive aspects.
A detractor of model minority stereotype affirms that it rifts minority population and empathy one beside the other; this precludes genuine disadvantaged Asians from receiving support. In Margins and Streams, Yun asserts that masculine yellow peril is saturated with womanly extortions and feminine model with manly perils (Yun, XV).
According to Yun (69), a woman was under the control of father as a child, husband when she was married and to sons when widowed. A woman was taught important ethics such as understanding her role in the universe and in natural order of responsibilities and guarding her words thus not chattering much.
This practices which was anchored on classes and ethnicities of Asian women fixed independence to men and was regarded as a confinement within the household domain. However, Asian men portrayed Asian women as sexually available, diffident and weak.
These phenomenon beleaguered women hence served as an antiphon of men to women conflict. Women therefore expanded their horizon to gain economic opportunities brought about by urbanization and industrialization especially migration to United States (Yun, 70).This is no difference in modern America. Asian women in America still share the oppression with other women across the world in issues such as sex and race tyranny and cessation within the social and national movements (Yun, 72)..
According to Okihiro, (33), he links yellow peril and model minorities as images which is a threat to Asians Americans. Asians American has been constantly targeted by other races because of color and ethnicity. Okihiro (33) gives examples .Businesses for Asians American have been constantly targeted and bombing has ensued as well. This is the case bombing of Korean grocery stores; separately, a Los Angeles shows a Latasha, white punching a 15 year old, Soon. Also, the invasion of Yong Park stores leaves him dead.
In Los Angeles alone, it is estimated that about seven Asian business owners had been killed in just one week and their stores damaged losing a lot of money. Consequently, the new “Abercrombie & Fitch T-shirts” containing satirized expressions with prejudiced judgments and hats further shows how the role of yellow peril is justified by Okihiro (34).
These examples show how yellow and model minority images have been used as a threat to Asian Americans. Asians Americans has been instigated because of the culture of their hard work, but Okihiro affirms that, other minorities see Asian merchants as a scheme benefiting from government favors hence prone in destabilizing the US economy (33). Okihiro (33) further points out that, Asian are favored not only by the government, but also by bigger businesses than any other businesses owned by other ethnicities.
There exists common culture between the value systems present in Asia and those in American middle cadre society. The ideal of model minority stereotype are not similar but, is a form of sharing definite morals and adaptive mechanism among Asian American.
In other words, when Asians happen to meet under auspicious conditions promising acculturation, Japanese values and personality for instance will act in similar manner to those of middle class Americans (Okihiro,33).The distinction that lies between sharing, identity or sharing as shown by Asians acting as “just like whites” (Okihiro,48).
We can also note the image of bondage and liberation in The Coolie Speaks. This is the case of Asians in Cuba who left a legacy. In present day, it is described as bondage (Yun, 37).Coolies testimonies and written account of their treatment mostly centered on harsh treatment they encountered. Hence, these activities later developed prompting liberation to freedom of Coolies.
The family acts as a symbol through which the various perspectives of the coolies can be showcased. Through the presentation of the family we see the contrasts between coolies for example the contrast between the Chinese in china and the Chinese in America (Yun, 165). In such pictures one sees how in as much as the coolies would like to protect a picture of being distinct homogeneity.
We are for instance how Chinese Liu is given a Coca-Cola by his father, a scholar. From this one reads western influence already that though there may appear a stark difference in physical appearance, there arises some middle line of agreement (Lowe, 80).
Though the appearance coupled with fears of the minority as seen in “Yellow Peril” has deeply rooted itself in a kind of basin-wash, contemporary researches has proved that even the minority can make it in all the spheres. All the issues discussed in this essay have their link to crisis in modern situations.
Research has particular shown how the coolie minority is making inroads into the American society (Lowe, 82). Asian Americans now have their numbers soaring in colleges’ inventions business etc, ostensibly through hard work and not through name tag protection by leading to what Okihiro discusses in “Margin as Mainstream” (Okihiro, 213).
The early Asian migration in the United States was influenced by marginalization acts such as quotas, internment and denial of citizenship. This practice anchored in using racial profiling Asian groups as identical. In contemporary America, this myth has been assimilated all along by Asians and has become part encouraging homogenization of Asian communities in United States.
Similarly, its is equally empirical to accentuate Asian American diversities in regard to gender, social status and national metamorphoses. According to Lowe (68), this has contributed to identity issues affecting Asian Americans in present day America.
According to Lowe (70), the Asian American identity as a form of organization instrument has provided a theory of “political unity”. This theory has simplified present-day Asian community in understanding their circumstances and embracing diversity of their history anchored in culture.
The construction of Asian American culture has enunciated and harmonized diverse Asian group and the society which has been all along marginalized them. These facets have in present-day fixed Asian American identity and inhibited the variances that encompass generation, sexuality, social status and national origin. However, these characteristic has poised challenges in supporting racial dialogue among Asian American communities as asserted by Lowe (71).
The Blade Runner fiction thriller produced by Ridley Scott in 1982 depicts Los Angeles as; a deteriorated, ruined, dirty, ethnic ghettos city in post industrial decay. Ridley equates Los Angels to a third world country and especially Asiatic settlements because of huge populations made up of Latinos, Cambodians and Chinese faces.
Los Angles picture represents a metropolis city congested with poor Latinos, Asians, Arabs and African immigrants. According to Lowe (84), Los Angels in Blade Runners thriller represent a symbol of first world as a third world nation. The 21st version of Blades Runners asserts that, it is needless for one to “travel out and see the world” because the world has been populated and controlled Los Angels (Lowe, 84).
Asia has been fabricated has a “foreign” peril to United States and being represented by Los Angels as a ghetto for “multitudes” of Asians immigrants engaged in service sector labor. Blade Runners thrillers’ image of third world especially Asian annexation of Los Angels reshapes orientalist designs in view of fabricating white citizen beside contextual of multiracial dystopia (Lowe, 85).
Conclusion
Coolie migration across to the United States and across the world has given rise to diverse culture. However, the suffering encountered such as victimization and hostile working conditions has provided a new revolution in enriching modern Asian American culture. The beauty of United States fabric has been a result of Asians’ migration.
The Asian Americans have contributed positively to the society through religion, art and fashion industries, among other sectors of the society. Moreover, other continents such as Latin America, Europe and Africa have embraced some aspects of Asian culture, thus creating a touch of beauty.
Works Cited
Broeck, Julien van den .The Economics of Labour Migration. Louisiana: E. Elgar, 1996
Hoerder, Dirk. Cultures in Contact: World Migrations in the Second Millennium. North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2002
Lowe, Lisa . Immigrant acts: on Asian American cultural politics North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1996
McDonald, Jason J. American Ethnic History: Themes and Perspectives. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007
Northrup, David. Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism, 1834-1922. Cambridge: CUP Archive, 1995
Okihiro, Gary Y. Margins and Mainstreams: Asians In American History And Culture. Washington: University of Washington Press, 1994
Yun, Lisa. The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers And African Slaves In Cuba. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008