Abstract
Many historians consider Erwin Rommel one of the most notable military generals of all time due to his leadership competencies and outstanding achievements in the World Wars. The current paper investigates the behavior, decisions, and characteristics of Erwin Rommel from the perspective of a Great Captain framework to determine whether he can be rightfully considered a Great Captain. The study thoroughly analyzes such competencies as Leader in Battle, Master of the Art of War, and Military Genius based on Rommel’s military career and tactical prowess. The research method includes a comprehensive literature review and consequent analysis of Rommel’s decisions and characteristics. The primary findings conclude that Erwin Rommel was indeed a Great Captain, while the most debatable constituent regarding the general was moral virtue.
Introduction
Generals and strategists play an essential part in warfare, frequently determining the battle outcome. The most remarkable historical figures can be rightfully considered Great Captains – people with outstanding military talent, courage, and experience. The current paper examines the behavior, decisions, and characteristics of Erwin Rommel to determine whether he can be viewed as one of the greatest generals of all time. Thus, the hypothesis is as follows: Erwin Rommel qualifies as a Great Captain due to his exceptional competencies as a Leader in Battle, a Master of the Art of War, and a Military Genius. Ultimately, the current research paper thoroughly analyzes Rommel’s strategies and achievements to confirm the proposed hypothesis.
Biographical Sketch
Johannes Erwin Eugen Rommel was one of the most prominent generals in the Nazi Army in World War II. He was born in Heidenheim, Imperial Germany, in 1891 in a large family (Mitcham 2019, 9). From the early years, Rommel demonstrated such qualities as pragmatism, strict work ethic, and self-reliance, which could be explained by the relatively strict upbringing in a conservative family (Mitcham 2019, 10). In 1910, he became a cadet in the 124th Infantry Regiment, and only one year after, he was able to enter the War Academy at Danzig for officer training (Mitcham 2019, 11). He participated in World War I, thoroughly documenting his military journey and operations. At the end of the war, he was promoted to captain rank due to his seemingly reckless but highly effective tactics during the conflict (Mitcham 2019, 21). Nevertheless, Rommel’s most notable achievements occurred during later periods.
Between the two World Wars, the German political leaders and, specifically, Hitler recognized great potential in Rommel. Rommel’s literary work Infanterie Greift An about the military operations during World War I became a classic of warfare literature, demonstrating the general’s vast military talent (Rommel 1979, 5). As a result, Rommel was promoted to Generalmajor on August 1, 1939, before the German attacked Poland (Mitcham 2019, 29). He achieved great military success in Poland and France during the initial stages of World War II in 1939-1940 but was still a relatively minor figure in the international arena (Kaushik 2019, 12). Nevertheless, in early 1941, Hitler promoted Rommel to the commander of the German troops in North Africa, and shortly after, the whole world recognized the military genius of Rommel (Kaushik 2019, 12). Ultimately, the operations in North Africa were highly successful until Rommel was transferred back to Germany in 1943.
The concluding stages of the Second World War marked the pivotal point of Rommel’s life. At the time, Rommel was dissatisfied with the Nazi political regime and, specifically, Hitler’s orders, which cost thousands of lives lost in North Africa (Mitcham 2019, 243). The historians also argue whether Rommel was aware of Hitler’s mass killing campaigns, but his suspicions made him oppose the Nazi regime (Mitcham 2019, 244). Consequently, Rommel became one of the anti-Hitler coalition members, whose objective was to remove Hitler from the leading position, but even more importantly – to stop a potential civil war (Mitcham 2019, 245). Nevertheless, Hitler eventually revealed the conspiracy plans, allowing Rommel to either give up his life voluntarily or all his family would be executed due to the family responsibility policy, called Sippenhaft (Mitcham 2019, 245). On October 14, 1944, Erwin Rommel took a cyanide pill to protect his family, resulting in nearly instant death.
Literature Review
Despite the relatively controversial opinions about Rommel’s motivation to serve in the army and attitude to Nazism, his military operations and strategies are documented in great detail. Furthermore, Rommel’s work Infanterie Greift An is a classic of military literature with a thorough depiction of leadership psychology and tactics used in World War I. As a result, it is essential to examine the existing studies on Rommel’s strategies to answer the research question and prove the tentative hypothesis. Ultimately, the current sub-chapter provides a thorough overview of the primary and secondary sources on Rommel’s warfare.
Infantry Attacks
The most crucial source for the current paper is Infantry Attacks – the translated version of the book Infanterie Greift an, written by Erwin Rommel. The general wrote the initial transcript in the 1930s before the Second World War and the international fame. At the time, he was already a prominent officer in the German army with significant achievements in the First World War. However, Infanterie Greift an quickly became the classic of military literature with curious insights into strategies, leadership, and description of operations. The book received attention from both Hitler and the leaders of the Allied forces, transparently demonstrating the vast military talent of Erwin Rommel. Thus, even before his greatest military achievements and operations in Africa, Rommel was perceived as a general of unrivaled military talent.
Although Infantry Attacks provides little information on Rommel’s biography, it is a primary source that brought international fame to the general. From these considerations, the book is essential to the current analysis and provides detailed information about Rommel’s military thinking and strategies. According to the tentative hypothesis, Rommel exceeds in the aspects of ‘military talent’, ‘art of war’, and ‘leadership in battle’. The three competencies emphasize intellect, commanding capabilities, theory of war, science of war, and comprehensive understanding of soldiers’ morale, all of which can be analyzed via the primary source. Therefore, Infantry Attacks provides a unique perspective on Rommel’s military achievements, precisely because he wrote it. Furthermore, the greatest military leaders of the time acknowledged the vast expertise of the book, making it one of the best sources for military analysis and a piece of extensive historical significance.
The book’s narrative primarily involves the detailed description of operations and battles during the First World War. Namely, Rommel explains his military thinking and leadership on the examples of conflicts in Belgium, France, and Romania. Furthermore, the general thoroughly analyzes the role of psychology, morality, and spirit in the battles adhering to the ‘leading in battle/war‘ component of great captains. He adjusts the structured military strategies based on the morale of the soldiers and chooses the most appropriate tactics. Rommel also explains his decisions and thinking by demonstrating the sketches of the terrain and units’ movements. As a result, Infantry Attacks is an exemplary source of both strategical brilliance and deep analysis of military psychology, making it the most significant source for the current paper.
Lastly, the book provides curious insights into Rommel’s motivation to serve in the Nazi army. Rommel went from being one of the most loyal Hitler supporters to being a sworn enemy of the Nazi regime and attempting to transform German politics. His highly controversial life is an intriguing topic for many historians globally, and Infantry Attacks explains his motivation to a certain extent. The book also demonstrates the humane part of the Nazi army: despite the overwhelming propaganda and unacceptable values of the Third Reich, Rommel depicts the daily life of soldiers as of ordinary people. This notion further implies the deep understanding of the general concerning the soldiers’ motivation and beliefs. In the book, he described how he bonded with his comrades and shared food and drinks, explaining its importance for the army’s morale. Ultimately, Infantry Attacks is a source of vast historical significance that demonstrates Rommel’s military talent and leadership.
Desert Fox: The Storied Military Career of Erwin Rommel
The book by Mitcham provides a thorough analysis of Rommel’s life and military career and is the second essential source for the current paper. The narrative is presented objectively, ignoring the lens of politically correct perspectives and focusing on accurate historical data and a thorough assessment of Rommel’s talent. There have been many heroic and morally-questionable moments throughout the general’s life, and it is essential to analyze them unbiased. It is one of the primary book’s strengths – Mitcham wanted to examine Rommel’s life as a journey of a human and a military genius, not precisely as a general of the Nazi army. From these considerations, the unbiased stance of the author would allow to more comprehensively understand the motivation and experiences of the general, making it an exemplary scholarly source.
Concerning the structure and narrative, Mitcham examines the whole of Rommel’s life, starting from early childhood to his eventual suicide in an attempt to save his family from Nazi oppression. Moreover, the author analyzes Rommel’s military achievement and thoroughly describes the general’s primary operations, specifically in North Africa during the Second World War. Mitcham presents sufficient arguments proving that Rommel is rightfully considered a military genius, a born leader, and possibly the greatest general in World War II. Mitcham also explains the origin of the ‘Desert Fox’ nickname that was given to Rommel due to his military achievements in the war. Nevertheless, there are several drawbacks of the book, implying the necessity of other scholarly sources for the current analysis as well. The most notable disadvantage is the lack of a thorough description of military operations and a comprehensive breakdown of strategical thinking. The book vastly focuses on Rommel’s personal life and, while it addresses the military conflicts, it lacks the depth of strategic analysis. Ultimately, Mitcham’s book is an excellent source for the current paper; however, other references are necessary to further examine Erwin Rommel’s military talent.
Rommel as Military Commander
The book by Lewin is one of the most comprehensive works on Rommel’s military journey in World War II. The author explains Rommel’s strategies, from Blitzkrieg in France in 1940 until his ultimate demise in 1944. The secondary source is particularly beneficial for the current analysis because it focuses on maps, schematics, and illustrations that explain Rommel’s vision in great detail. Using the visual reference, Lewin was able to provide a clear overview of Rommel’s military talent.
Patton and Rommel: Men of War in the Twentieth Century
In the examined book, Showalter Dennis presents a comparative overview of George Patton and Erwin Rommel, implying the vast importance of the two generals to the whole military history. The author provides a unique perspective by focusing on the two vastly different generals, who were eventually confronted during North African campaigns and the Battle of Normandy in 1944. Showalter also demonstrates the distinct approaches to warfare, closely examining their military strategies. Ultimately, Patton and Rommel is a secondary source that provides a unique perspective, highly beneficial for the current analysis.
Erwin Rommel and German Military Doctrine, 1912-1940
The article by Martin Samuels presents a deep analysis of Rommel’s life and his shifting perspectives on the German military doctrine. Experts generally agree that the general’s military career is vastly ambiguous, with many myths and rumors surrounding the military genius. Furthermore, the article emphasizes Rommel’s unique way of thinking, which frequently deviated from the standard Nazi protocol, implying creativity and superior vision on the battlefield. Samuels examines Rommel’s military operations both in the First and Second World Wars and analyzes his decision-making in accordance with his rank and scope of influence. This investigation reveals that Rommel was able to adjust his military tactics based on his importance in the army, thus, implying his vast talent for leadership and comprehensive understanding of his fellow soldiers.
Operational Principles: The Operational Art of Erwin Rommel and Bernard Montgomery
The book by McMahon and consequent sources provide a comprehensive analysis of his military achievements on the operational level. McMahon examines the strategies, principles, understanding of nearby territories and landscape, leadership methods, and other factors that govern Rommel’s military thinking. Unlike previous sources, McMahon is concerned only about the strategic and tactical levels of war and precise descriptions of operations. The author also examines the differences in Rommel’s operational principles during the Blitzkrieg campaign in France in 1940 and a more careful approach in North Africa campaign from February 1941 to February 1942. Ultimately, the source thoroughly analyzes Rommel’s military strategies and leadership talent.
With Rommel in the Desert: Tripoli to El Alamein
The book by Mitchellhill-Green focuses entirely on Rommel’s military strategies in North Africa from 1941 to 1943. It includes the preparation for the conflict, such as infantry training regimes and initial tactics, the operations, and the overview of soldiers’ morale. The primary strength of the source is the unique focus on Rommel’s strategies from the perspective of ordinary infantry. The author examines the experiences of the German troops under the command of Erwin Rommel based on various reports, journals, and eyewitness testimonies. Furthermore, Mitchellhill-Green analyzes a large number of external factors that obstructed the advancement of the German army, such as harsh weather conditions, unsuitable terrain for technological units, and diseases. The author also examines Rommel’s response to the circumstances and the acquisition of necessary assets to mitigate the difficulties. Lastly, the conflict in Africa was the first war associated with the extensive usage of photography, and the author presents a large number of visual materials demonstrating Rommel and the lives of ordinary soldiers during the war.
Fighting Rommel: The British Imperial Army in North Africa during the Second World War, 1941-1943
The last source by Kaushik provides a unique perspective on Rommel’s achievements in Africa from the viewpoint of the Allied forces, which comprised the British, the Australian, and the Indian troops. The author casts doubt on the generally acknowledged military talent of Erwin Rommel and explains the outcomes of the campaign by focusing on the Allied forces. Ultimately, Erwin Rommel was able to control the tide of the war for two years despite the overall technological advantage of the Allied forces, which undoubtedly makes him an outstanding general. However, the author’s unique perspective on the conflict in Africa might reveal curious insights into the military thinking of the Allied forces and flaws of the British strategies, which could be exploited by Erwin Rommel. Ultimately, the book by Kaushik presents less information on the military general, but it can explain the success of his tactics by emphasizing the strategies of the opposing side, making it a viable source for the current analysis.
Rommel Analysis
The analysis of Rommel’s military strategies, leadership, and thinking constitutes a major part of the current research paper. As seen from the previous chapter, there is extensive literature on Rommel’s strategies and military vision; however, the reviewed sources do not examine Rommel from the perspective of the Great Captain assessment. Thus, it is essential to analyze Rommel’s journey according to the proposed research framework. Ultimately, the current chapter thoroughly examines Rommel’s military talent from the perspective of three elements of Great Captains: Leader in Battle, Master of the Art of War, and Military Genius.
Leader in Battle
The first element of the Great Captain concerns leadership and the general’s mastery of three constituting factors – courage, vision, and morality. The current analysis is based on Christopher Kolenda’s (2001, 12) framework of military leadership, which implies the competencies of Areté or moral virtue and Vision or intellect. The two factors also convey the presence of transcendent principles, such as trustworthiness, respect, and caring, which are essential to inspire soldiers and make them believe in the righteousness of the war (Kolenda 2001, 16). Thus, according to Kolenda, a general can only be called a leader if they demonstrate the examined competencies.
From the beginning of his military career, Rommel demonstrated exemplary leadership competencies, including courage and vision. He directly led the soldiers in the rapid attacks in World War I despite the number disadvantage (Mitcham 2019, 14). Many of Rommel’s strategies were reckless, but he compensated it with courage, high soldier morale, and intelligent maneuvers. As a result, in 1917, he captured more than 9,000 men, including officers, within several operations, while the manpower of his unit was less than a thousand (Mitcham 2019, 20). Such success can be explained by leadership and outstanding courage, but as demonstrated in Infanterie Greift An, Rommel also had an exemplary understanding of human psychology. He frequently mentioned the importance of fighting spirit, positive attitude, and the sense of comradery between the soldiers (Rommel 1979, 43). Later, Rommel’s adjutant, Schraepler, would write about the general, “He is fully engaged by the fulfillment of his mandate, he sets an example rarely encountered” (Mitchelhill-Green 2017, 83). Thus, Rommel demonstrated exemplary courage, vision, and intelligence to inspire the soldiers.
Furthermore, while Erwin Rommel was a general in the Nazi army, and his actions led to thousands of deaths, he was generally recognized as the most merciful German officer. In fact, one of the reasons for his eventual betrayal of the Nazi regime was Hitler’s belief that all soldiers are replaceable and should be sacrificed for tactical advantage (Mitcham 2019, 243). This idea directly contradicted Rommel’s moral principles, based on strict command but a compassionate mindset toward people who could no longer fight. In Infanterie Greift An (1979, 23), this perspective is transparently demonstrated by the passage, “It was terrible to listen to suffering and dying men. We helped friend and foe without distinction, gave them our last piece of bread”. Naturally, war is a terrible occurrence, generally associated with deaths, panic, and torture; however, Rommel understood the importance of humanistic values, specifically during wartime under the Nazi regime. Ultimately, the current analysis proves that Erwin Rommel can be rightfully considered a leader in battle/war due to his outstanding courage, moral virtue, and intelligence.
Master of the Art of War
The second element of the Great Captain is “Master of the Art of War”, which implies such competencies as the science of war, the theory of war, and experience. According to the framework, the former refers to quantifiable aspects, while the theory of war and experience are nonphysical factors that allow the general to wage war effectively. Consequently, a combination of known elements or Acts of Knowledge and unknown elements or Acts of Judgment forms a sense of military intuition – a necessary quality that allows making reasonable decisions despite the lack of knowledge. Thus, a master of the art of war is a general who can formulate strategies that consider multiple known and unknown factors and provide the most advantageous position in the conflict.
Erwin Rommel demonstrated competency in the art of war multiple times throughout his career, as he entered most battles being heavily outnumbered. The beginning of the North African campaign is one of the most illustrative examples of Rommel’s superior understanding of war. During the defense of Tripolitania (former province of Libya) in early 1941, Rommel assumed that focusing on the initial defense line would inflict a sense of fear among the Allied forces (Lewin 2004, 31). Rommel thoroughly studied the terrain and organized the defense with all available manpower to create a substantial opposition line (McMahon 2014, 37). The map of the territory is presented below in Figure 1:
As a result, Rommel was able to secure a decisive victory on February 24, 1941, despite the massive number disadvantage, and inflict panic in the troops of the Allied forces (McMahon 2014, 37). Ultimately, Rommel chose this tactic to deceive the British troops concerning the logistics chain and the overall number of German forces (Kaushik 2019, 13). While some experts consider the incompetence of the Allied officers as the primary reason for the defeat, Rommel undoubtedly demonstrated a superior understanding of psychology, strategy, and military intuition to achieve success (Kaushik 2019, 14). The general considered both known and unknown factors and developed the most appropriate strategy to overwhelm his foes, being heavily outnumbered in manpower and technological units. Throughout his career, Rommel demonstrated his competency in the art of war in many battles, and the initial conflict during the North African campaign is one of the definitive proofs of Rommel’s talent.
Military Genius
Lastly, the third element of the Great Captain is “Military Genius”, which comprises three primary areas – intellect, creativity, and the eye of command. While the former two aspects are applicable to Rommel and are universal qualities of all geniuses, the eye of command is specific to military operations. In general, it refers to the unique perspective on warfare that allows the Great Captain to quickly assess the situation and construct a complete view of the battlefield despite uncertainties and unknown factors. Furthermore, compared to most generals, a military genius has a different mindset that allows them to recognize the most effective strategy in the battle. The eye of command is particularly useful in rapidly escalating situations when the speed of response and decision-making might be the cause for victory or defeat.
Throughout his military career, Rommel demonstrated insubordination many times, which clearly reveals his deep tactical knowledge and quick analysis of the situation on the battlefield. After all, Rommel’s initiatives and disobedience always led to highly productive results. In World War I, he directly commanded a small unit to overwhelm and capture more than 9,000 enemies despite the order to regroup (Mitcham 2019, 20). Concerning his military intuition, Showalter Dennis (2014, 183) – a prominent historian specializing in German history – writes, “Rommel manifested a situational awareness, both geographic and tactical, so finely honed that men spoke of a sixth sense”. Furthermore, regarding Rommel’s disobedience, Marshal Auchinleck wrote, “Rommel <…> had overcome the innate rigidity of the German military mind and was a master of improvisation” (Sammuels 2017, 3). Therefore, while Rommel was indeed a relatively insubordinate officer, his actions always led to the advancement of the German army. Ultimately, Rommel demonstrated a remarkable capacity of the eye of command in both World War I and II, rightfully earning the title of a military genius.
Research Findings
Having analyzed such elements as Leader in Battle, Master of the Art of War, and Military genius, the current paper proved that Erwin Rommel was a Great Captain. Throughout his career, Rommel demonstrated all of the examined qualities, including leadership, vision, intellect, creativity, the art of war, intuition, and many other crucial characteristics of a Great Captain. While each of the qualities was transparently demonstrated by Rommel’s actions, subjectively, moral virtue is the most debatable trait.
Defining morality in the context of war, and particularly Imperial and Nazi Germany, is a complicated task. After all, it is undeniable that Erwin Rommel was a supporter of the Nazi regime and a Hitler’s loyalist for the vast majority of his life (Samuels 2017, 3). However, Rommel was also a passionate person who frequently abandoned the principles of the Nazi regime and helped wounded soldiers, whether friend or foe. Furthermore, Rommel always ensured the POWs had acceptable conditions and loathed torture policies (Showalter 2014, 176). It is essential to understand that in the context of German military doctrine, such behavior could be perceived as a betrayal, and Rommel risked his career and life to preserve humanistic values. Ultimately, while moral virtue is the most arguable Great Captain aspect in regard to Rommel, the current paper claims that Erwin Rommel was indeed a person of high humanistic standards, considering the historical and cultural contexts of Nazi Germany.
Conclusion
The current paper has examined Erwin Rommel’s character and military career from the perspective of the Great Captain’s framework. The in-depth analysis confirmed the initial tentative hypothesis and proved that Erwin Rommel satisfied all three aspects of the MILS512 definition of a Great Captain. His success during the World Wars proved his military talent and leadership, while his deep understanding of fellow soldiers and attitude toward captured POWs demonstrated Rommel’s humanistic values. Ultimately, Erwin Rommel can be rightfully considered a Great Captain and one of the most notable military generals of all time.
Bibliography
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