From going over the book “Essential world History” by Duiker & Spielvogel (2008), I got fascinated by the dialectical movement that has informed changes in civilizations. Whether in Greece or Rome or in any other ancient city, developments came about as a result of a given form of dialectic. There would be a given issue or problem to which people would seek solutions. Some solutions were sought more consciously as in the case of Greek philosophizing on how best to govern or be governed. Solutions would be developed that would later prove not to be effective or efficient enough. Those would be discarded for better ones that would later still be discarded for more developed ones.
Greece has a long wide legacy. A legacy is the treasured traditions or cultural attributes that have been passed on from generation to generation. It is the cultural inheritance of a people, something that makes a people culturally distinct that can be traced back to the past. The Greeks are well known for their philosophical and scientific inquiries. Alexander the Great’s reign over Greece began in 334BC (Roberts 20). By this time, Greece as a nation was a collection of warring states who only worked together due to their similar culture, religion, and language.
One of the greatest legacies of Greek civilization is their contribution to the development of arts and sciences (Roberts 21). Methods and schemes of thought developed by Greeks are still in use today. The scientific method of inquiry is said to have had its roots in Greek civilization. Early philosophers like Socrates refused the common beliefs about the gods. Socrates devised the midwifery method of inquiry, which consists of a teacher asking guiding questions that help a learner to discover the truth for oneself. The hippocratic Oath is still in use in the medical field. Hippocrates refused to accept the idea that illness is caused by evil spirits. He thus chose and encouraged the search for causes and cures to illnesses in nature. Over time, different Greek scientists and philosophers refined and postulated what is now known as the scientific method (Roberts 24). The scientific method requires that in the face of problems, a searcher gathers all possible information about the problem forms a hypothesis, or gives a tentative answer then tests the hypothesis before arriving at a conclusion.
In those early years, a Greek scientist Eratosthenes was able to measure the circumference of the earth. Archimedes, another Greek scientist, and mathematician established Pi and also developed the pulley. The geometry text was first put together by a Greek mathematician known as Euclid while philosophers established moral theories that have informed world considerations in moral matters. For example, stoicism and Epicureanism as approaches to moral decisions were developed by Zen and Epicurus respectively (Duicker & Jackson 92).
Literature also developed a lot during the days of Alexander. Greek writers like Theocritus are credited with having developed poetry by giving it a defined form. In the field of theater, epics gained a lot of popularity with homer being credited for having written: “two great epic poems in western tradition” (Duicker & Jackson 92). In judicial matters, Greek is credited with the trial by jury method. In the different states in Greece, citizens were required to sit on juries to determine the guilty from the innocent. Taking part in injuries was seen as a duty to the state and not an optional matter. Greek architecture and sculpturing also developed a lot and many Greek pieces of sculpture and architectural models are still in use all over the world.
The Roman Empire also had a great influence on world civilizations. This empire rose as a result of the military prowess but also academic excellence that the Romans had embraced. The military prowess had been necessitated by having been sacked once by the Gauls (Duicker & Jackson 104). The intellectual excellence had been occasioned by the writing skills, numerals, and knowledge of gods provided by the Etruscans (Duicker & Jackson 103). Through conquering and plundering neighboring states, the Romans got slaves to work in their cities and treasures or material with which they built their cities and facilitated expansion. However, it is not the conquering alone but rather the policy of assimilation that led to the smooth expansion of the empire (Duicker & Jackson 104). The defeated nations were given the opportunity to become roman states. The states that did not want war with Romans easily avoided war by joining and becoming a roman state. The cultural diversity of Rome also attracted many scholars, traders, and visitors to throng roman cities. Using the knowledge and trading with visitors, Romans developed all sorts of forms that made a difference.
Romans are credited for having created what developed into modern law (Roberts 42). After a strike by the lower class that paralyzed life in the Roman Empire, the high class or the rich agreed to concessions or compromises that were to govern relationships between people in the two classes. The rich were called Patricians while the lower classes were called Plebeians. The agreement between the two classes is known as “the twelve tables” (Duicker & Jackson 106).
The greatest challenge to the establishment of the Roman Empire was Carthage. Carthage was Rome’s greatest enemy because it had as much muscle as Rome and its leader Hannibal was a greater war tactician than any general in Rome. The three Punic Wars that ended the destruction of Carthage are what gave Rome all the freedom to expand without resistance. Carthage was only defeated after Scipio Africanus had studied Hannibal’s war tactics thus being able to defeat him at his own game (109).
The fall of the Roman Empire is largely associated with the disintegration or breakdown of the moral system (Roberts 53). For example, Emperor Tiberius was hated by all people because he was very scandalous. He engaged in homosexual activity with young boys (Roberts 68). Emperor Nero is said to have killed his own mother, wife and persecuted (martyred) many Christians (Duicker & Jackson 116). It is theorized that military muscle and economic wealth made roman rulers grandiose that they became indifferent to the feelings of their partners and subjects. After the death of Julius Caesar, what was witnessed are a raft of civil wars by people who sought to self-aggrandize themselves. The barbarians easily defeated the Romans because the rulers were too engrossed in hedonistic and tyrannical exploits that they did not notice, for example, that too many barbarians had taken up positions within the Praetorian Guards in the empire. Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the empire after some alleged miracle (Duicker & Jackson 120). Christianity and its pacifism are also said to have killed the militantism of the Romans. Christianity postulated that there is a good life after death, making people become indifferent to the happenings of the now.
When the eastern Roman Empire collapsed, the roman catholic church which had been made the official religion of the empire by Emperor Theodosius, created its own laws (canon) and established its own government structures e.g. courts and administrative units(Morris & Walter 97).
The world at large cannot claim freedom from the influence of Islam. Islam has a legacy in having transformed cultures and political systems across the globe. Although Islam as a world religion was found or started by Prophet Mohammed in the 7th century, the faith traces its roots to Adam and Eve. Adam and eve are actually considered as having been the inaugural apostles. Islam recognizes the contributions of prophets such as Abraham, Moses, and later Jesus. It is believed that the prophets of God taught or professed the same kind of faith despite their having served in different areas at different times.
Islam has had a great influence on the world’s politics, economics, cultures, and militarily. From inception, Islam could be identified with given economic, military, and political pursuits. Over time, Islamic empires or regimes have developed and dissipated. Some of the notable empires are the Mughals, the ottomans, the Umayyads, the Fatimids, and the Safavids (Morris & Walter 131). All these empires are associated with given developments in the different areas where their influence reached. From Asia to West and East Africa to North Africa, Islam has had its fair contribution to developments in the areas.
Most coastal towns and islands on the Indian Ocean shores owe their culture and appearance to Islamic influence. Coastal towns like Lamu and Malindi on the Kenyan coast have a distinct culture that results from the actions of Islamic expansionists (Morris & Walter 125). The spread of Islam did not rely on persuasion but rather military conquest. Through jihads, Islamic empires were able to subdue and force many people into Islam. Islam reached northern Africa, as early as 909 (Duicker & Jackson 143). Egypt was fought for by the Fatimids and conquered in the 900 and it acted as a center of power for the expansionist Islamic leaders. Before long they had captured the Maghreb which consisted of present-day Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria (Morris & Walter 132).
The rise of modern Europe is traced back to the industrial revolution of the 15th century. This period of industrialization was characterized by many inventions and explorations. Rapid and numerous technological discoveries and inventions can be traced back to the 15th and 16th centuries. It is also at this time that Constantinople fell, and the protestant reformation gained momentum. Secularization of the state can also be traced back to the time when modern Europe began to emerge.
Some of the catalysts towards the rise of modern Europe were the renaissance and enlightenment thinkers, economic thinkers e.g. development of the mercantilism theory, decline and fall of feudalism, changes in the power balance in Christendom, and establishment of contact between Europe and the rest of the world especially America, and some Asian countries(Morris & Walter 132).
The industrial revolution in England and the French revolution marked definitive points in the formation of England and France. Before the modern era, a feudal system existed in Europe. The feudal system was anchored on nobles enjoying most rights and privileges while they accorded protection to the kings and their subjects (Duicker & Jackson 184). The feudal system was strengthened by a unified Roman Catholic Church that preached submission and unquestioned obedience to authority. The separation between church and state was not very clear. With the reformations setting in, pioneered by Martin Luther King, the pope lost grip over many states thus giving room for democratization (Duicker & Jackson 192).
Some of the most influential thinkers at that time were Machiavelli and Thomas More. These were succeeded by other philosophers who believed in reason as the only sure way to establishing truth. This movement was a revolt against an age of superstition and faith-based irrationality. The development of early Europe was deeply informed by divisions between Catholics and Protestants. In many European countries, Protestants managed to have their way, giving way to more liberal ways of doing and organizing. In Spain, Portugal, and Italy, the Roman Catholic Church managed to stifle Protestants thus retaining dominance.
References
Duiker, William J., Jackson J. Spielvogel. The Essential World History. 3rd Ed. Thomson/Wadsworth: Canada, 2008.
Morris, Ian & Walter, Scheidel. The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford University Press: USA, 2009.
Roberts John Morris. A history of Europe. Helicon: London, 1960.