Describe the ethical risks in anthropological field work. What are the ethical obligations of an anthropologist?
Introduction
Anthropology as a multidiscipline has throughout the history of mankind tried to make available fossil material to future generations as references. Anthropology therefore makes use of field studies and research in order to give forth empirical and viable information. As a result, the ethics of collecting in addition to presenting anthropological material in museums for the public is central in anthropological discussions (Erickson, Sabatke &Wall, 2001, para.2). With the world becoming a global village, people from diverse cultures interact with the aim of anticipating to learn each other’s culture. Consequently, anthropologists should prepare ethical values that will promote cultural understanding. On the other hand, these ethics, due to cultural diversity and many other factors, may pose serious risks that may interfere with what would have otherwise been a peaceful field work.
Ethics in anthropological field work
Anthropology like any other discipline operates on clearly defined ethics which anthropologists are obliged to abide by. According to American Anthropological Association (1998) an anthropologist in his or her research owes an obligation to all those that are useful in carrying out a field work including species in addition to materials of study as well as the people in the study. This code of ethics stipulates the following obligations: a researcher should not in any way harm or wrong or even violate the dignity, privacy and or the safety of the subjects of study whether they are human or animal species in the cause of knowledge development(Erickson, Sabatke &Wall, 2001, para.2).
Regardless of being human or non human, the species subject to study should be treated with respect. They should ensure that the psychological well being of the subjects of study is not compromised. While carrying out a research, the anthropologist should put in mind the need to conserve historical records, fossil and archeological material for a long-term period. In the same manner, an anthropologist is obliged to establish a favorable working platform by first making consultations with persons to be affected so as to ensure involvement of both parties.
In carrying out a research, information providers that is, the interviewees might either want their names and whereabouts to be disclosed or withheld. An anthropological researcher has to strictly comply with these wishes. In case recognition or anonymity as per the request of the information provider is compromised, the anthropologist should make it known to them. In addition, the researcher should obtain an informed approval from those to be involved in the study either by giving information or direction to the access of material in advance so as to avoid misinterpretation of the entire research exercise. It should be clear that the measure and extent of informed approval necessary is determined by the nature of the research and therefore might be affected with necessities of other codes such as the law and ethics of the community in which the study is carried out.
Ethical risks in anthropological field work
Some of the ethics and obligations defined for anthropological researchers could in a way pose risk in their research especially when they are dealing with hostile groups. It is a big challenge for researchers to carry out a feasibility study because they might be treated harshly by the community of area of study. It is also risky for an anthropologist to guarantee the privacy and safety of study subjects. This is because there might be other external forces that might lead to violation. In such a case, the researcher could be sued for going against set rules. Similarly, it is also possible, especially when carrying out a study on non-mainstream group that are highly marginalized, to go against stipulated laws. This calls for sensitivity and carefulness when dealing with such groups.
Conclusion
Anthropological field work can be an interesting and a very educative study since it equips a researcher with facts about certain phenomenon. However, the process through which these facts are obtained can prove to be a challenge as well as risky to the researcher. Therefore ethical values are put in places to draw a line on the boundaries for researchers as well as protect individuals who provide information on given occurrences.
Define the term “culture” and “adaptation” and explain how they are related. Are cultures ever maladaptive? Use examples from the assigned reading to support the answer
Culture
Culture is a central concept in anthropology that surrounds the entire fraternity of human phenomenon excluding the genetic make up of the human race. According to Sokefeld (1999, p. 23), culture is no longer considered in terms of traditions, meaning and related elements but rather as an “ability to reproduce reciprocal symbolic relocations and to form meaning through interaction.” This therefore means that culture is no longer an occurrence that is shared by a group of people who share a language, history and geographical background. As a result, people embrace quite a number of cultural identities depending on the number of cultures they have encountered and interacted with. Culture as a concept has undergone evolution leading to a total transformation in meaning.
Adaptation
Adaptation is an evolutionary process which leads to a group of people becoming better placed in their present habitat. This is a long process that can take generations for it to be accomplished. When human beings migrate from one place to another, adaptation to the new environment is necessary for it will help assume normal lifestyle including normal body functioning, reproduction and survival within the natural habitat. Adaptation does not necessarily occur as a result of movement in different locations but also cultural evolution where aspects of culture have undergone transformation (Cohen, 1974, p.4). According to Cohen adaptation is a “relationship between an item of behavior and its source; it is an abstract principle that refers to the sweep of institution that are changing in a particular direction.” This implies that the evolution of human phenomenon cannot be precisely explained.
Adaptation and culture relationship
Culture and adaptation are related in the sense that culture provides a platform for adaptation. This is to say that, as culture changes due to various factors, adaptation to the new sets of values is necessitated (Cohen, 1974, p.1). Therefore man’s adaptation from generation to generation is mainly achieved through cultural means. It is therefore important to note that there can never be change in culture without adaptation. Adaptation can be likened to a vehicle that carries culture through the transformation process from one generation to another.
Cultural adaptation and maladaptation
Human beings have the ability to adapt to new situations depending on what motivates them. Whereas human beings have innate mechanisms to steadily accrue knowledge, technology as well as institutions from generation to generation, they on the other hand can also engage in stunningly maladaptive behaviors. In most cases, adaptive information is embodied within culture of a people. Culture is acted upon by selective groups of people. This can lead to the increase of hereditarily maladaptive belief and value systems. Human groups differ in terms of norms and values due to the generational transmission. Predominating norms within a social group possibly have an effect on the probability of a social group retaining its original norms and values, regardless of whether it is economically flourishing or big in number (Boyd & Richerson, n.d, p. 76).
Ali Hassan’s case is typical of cultural mal-adaptivity. Being a Shiite, Ali cannot wait for her nephew’s wedding reception because according to them, they are not to eat meat served by the Sunni whether they are blood relatives or not. Throughout his entire lifetime, Ali has maintained his cultural position accordingly regardless of kinship ties (Sokefeld. 1999, p. 45). In the case of the Woman’s World, the Mundurucu culture agrees that the chief is allowed to have a polygamy type of family. However, the Mundurucu chief resorts to a monogamous kind of family. This is adaptation is due to accumulation of certain knowledge that has led to a transformation in culture.
Conclusion
In some cases, adaptation is culturally achieved while in others it is not. It is therefore important to note that cultural change leading to cultural change depends on the cohesiveness of a social group as well as the force behind the change.
How is identity related to culture? Compare three different cultures in terms of how identity is formulated. Use examples from the assigned readings
Introduction
Identity is an overall term used to give a description of a person’s outset and expression of either their individuality or social group affiliations such as cultural identity. That forms an individual’s identity, and they tend to be different from one person to the other. Identity is shaped by a number of factors including the sociological, historical as well as socioeconomic factors.
Culture and identity
Culture and identity are related in the sense that individuals adhere to cultural norms and values in different perspective, making them unique from others in the way they observe their cultural beliefs. Ali Hassan for instance is different from other Shiites because of variation in identity. Although he does not wait for the reception which is scheduled in the evening, Ali Hassan attends a relative’s wedding ceremony organized by the Sunni something that no Shiite would have done basing on their cultural beliefs customs.
Ali Hassan embraces distinct identities at the level of religion along with kinship ties. In each of the two levels, he has distinct opinions that differ in meaning which though personal; they owe a lot to the practices of the Shiite group of people. Some of the identities held by Ali contradict within themselves. Malik Amman is his relative and a Sunni for that matter, however, Ali Hassan cannot share a meal with Malik because he is a Wahabi. Wahabi’s do not eat meals especially meat prepared by the Wanafi, in reciprocal, the Wanafi’s do not eat meals prepared by Wahabi’s (Sokefeld, 1999, p. 56).
Among the Napalese of Napal, cultural identities are molded around social classes referred to as the Napalene caste system. The castes are ranked on the basis of the Hindu religion in terms of purity and pollution where those in the higher rank are pure than the lower castes who are polluted and are in a way untouchable. As such, an individual’s identity is defined by the castes they belong to, in a way that people in different caste end up exhibiting different identities. Among the Napalese people, the Brahman form the top caste in the hierarchy, followed by a caste whose male members put on a sacred thread around shoulders and under the arms just like the Brahmin males. Next, we have the Matwali, better known as “liquor drinkers”. The Matwali are followed by the lowest of castes known as the untouchables who just like the Indian untouchables are considered impure and that any physical conduct with them results to pollution. In case of physical conduct with them, a ritual purification is performed to in order to restore purity. In addition, men are considered pure than women. This is because of the menstrual cycle that they go through every month. This affects the women’s identity they feel inferior of all the castes. Similarly, physical conduct with a menstruating woman leads to pollution, therefore in case of conduct, ritual purification in essential.
In the case of Mundurucu in The Woman’s World, cultural identity is shaped around gender and gender roles of group members. Being a man or a woman determines the cultural identity. Even though women have the power and ability to govern, they are not given formal authority to do so, rather it is their male counterparts who dominate and rule over them. For instance, a home is referred to by the name of a male elder and not by a woman’s name. The role of a woman among the Mundurucu is to bear children and take care of all house hold chores. Thus the house is designed in a way that it is adopted to suit the role of a woman. It is an expression of her values and activities since it is the place where she eats, rests, works from and takes care of her children among many other activities.
Conclusion
From the above, different cultures have different cultural identity formulated around their own cultural beliefs. As such, understanding differences in identities depending on cultural beliefs sheds light on why people of the same culture exhibit different opinions on particular cultural matters. For example, the Bahmals, the Mundurucu, the Shiites and Sunni both have cultural identities woven around different cultural norms and value system such as religion, social class and gender roles. However, there are differences which exist among these communities. These identities serve in explaining the deeper meaning of cultural norms and values that are peculiar to the specified group of people. As such, the process of acculturation in case of contact between two cultures can take generations to come to completion.
Reference List
Boyd, R. & Richerdson, P. (n.d). Cultural adaptation and maladaptation: Of Koyaks and Commissars. London: Oxford Press.
Cohen, A. (1974). Man in adaptation: The cultural preset. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Erickson, A. Hayes, M. Sabatke, S, Vargo, R. & Wall, J. (2001).Ethics in anthropology: Public representation of public material. New York: Butterworth.
Sokefeld, M. (1999). Current anthropology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.