Introduction
Ethics is a field of philosophy that attempts to answer questions on morality that have to do with good and bad, right and wrong, virtue and vice among other moral concerns. Within this field of study are subgroups that deal with the different areas of application of ethics like meta-ethics that deals with issues of hypothetical meaning, and how to establish the level of truth in the propositions. Another branch of ethics is applied ethics that deals with how moral capability develops and what its nature should be like. Normative ethics is applied in deciding between different courses of action and descriptive ethics that seek to point out the moral values that different individuals actually abide by. (Ellis 3-29)
Ethics of care is a theory of ethics that is used to define the different conditions or factors that make an action either wrong or right. However, within this theory are constituent theoretical views that were developed within the late twentieth century by feminists who were seeking to provide women with more fair treatment and rights. The ethics of care give emphasis to the need for relationships unlike the ethical views of deontological and consequentialist theories, that emphasize on the universality of standards and neutrality. The foundation of the ethics of care is the interdependence of different individuals towards achieving their wellbeing. The other aspect that forms a core aspect of the ethics of care is giving extra attention to the needs of the marginalized in provision among other aspects of societal living. The third area that is given consideration in observing the ethics of care is the importance of background information in protecting and upholding the interests of the individuals in question. However, the ethics of care often contrast with the ethical views of Utilitarianism and Kantian ethics in the perspective of view of morality, in the pursuit for justice that the feminists sought to find by giving more consideration to the understanding of social relationships. (Ellis 3-29)
Explanation of the different theoretical models
The Metaphysics of Morals by Immanuel Kant is a major study on moral and political knowledge. This work is further divided into parts where the science of right is based on the interpretation of the roots of a political community as a national one. This is helpful in formulation of laws that are positive and which help in safeguarding the welfare of the people. The major role of this part of Kants’ work is to ensure that rights of individuals are upheld and that the political philosophy put in action does not undermine these rights. The second part of Kants’ work is the science of virtue that addresses the issues of ethical development of individuals, as members of the human society. (Sahakian & Sahakian 37-38)
Nicomachean Ethics is the work of ethics by Aristotle that is applied widely in the philosophical, legal and theological fields of study and application. Due to the wide usage of this work and the prominent impact in definition of ethics, his work has gained usage in modern philosophy. In his work Aristotle argues that his ideas are dissimilar as they are not just for the use of defining what things are, but also to help individuals become good in their daily lives by putting them into practice. He goes further to argue that his work is different from others as it proves more practical than theoretical. In his work Aristotle argues that happiness depends on doing according to virtues especially the best and most perfect of the all, and further argues that reason in thought and speech forms the starting point of virtues. In his work he does not equate character with habit as he argues that character consists of the conscious choices of a person and there is no conscious choice in habit development. He further argues that character is a stable state like knowledge that needs maintenance and conscious pursuit. Aristotle also argues that good habits in the long run integrate to form a good character that he explains as a moral virtuous state. According to Aristotle the ultimate virtue that should be attained so as to live a virtuous life is contemplative wisdom, which according to him is an integration of all the other character virtues. (Sahakian & Sahakian 37-38)
According to Held’s Reason, Gender and Moral theory, the society was seen to be sexist in that it did not sufficiently appreciate the insight of women. The other area that is given emphasis in this theory is that the traditional theories ignored the areas that form central moral experience of women, and that there was significant difference between men and women in areas of morality. The other area that this theory gave focus on was that the experiences of women should be regarded strictly as those of men, and that women have equal moral worth as men. Held’s theory was pursuing the consideration of interpersonal relations as well as economic and political relations, which formed part of the traditional theories. This theory was also trying to falsify the idea of universal principles with regard to moral issues, which it argues are wider than can be reflected by the universal principles. In this work emphasis is also given to the role of feelings in morality that works together with reason in arriving at moral judgments. The theory goes further to argue that humans should be exposed to conscious choice where one either accepts or rejects living with the moral issues and their outcomes. Another idea in this theory is that action forms a part of experience as perception is. (Noddings 89-95)
As discussed metaphysics of morals takes a political perspective in defining ethics and morals, while Nicomachean ethics emphasize on conscious choices and character development in issues of morality and ethics. On the other hand Held’s theory gives emphasis to the interpersonal relations and insight of women in defining ethics and morality. (Ellis 3-29)
Traditional ethical theories
According to virtue ethics emphasis is given on the disposition of the moral agent, rather than the system of consequences that may result from making certain moral choices. The views of this theory contrast with those of consequentialists who judge the morality of actions based on the consequences of the particular act, and the deontological views that argue that actions are wrong or right based on character of the given individual rather than the outcomes that may result. A good example in application for virtue ethics is the fact that when one does something wrong, the wrong lies in the moral character of that person to have made the choice to do the wrong thing despite the surrounding conditions. (Ellis 3-29)
Utilitarian ethics on the other end hold that the right or wrong nature of an action depends on the overall benefit to the majority of people. This benefit is viewed in terms of the pleasure or happiness, which yields for the utmost number of people and as well reducing the suffering in them. (Sahakian & Sahakian 37-38)
Divine command ethics argue that statements to do with the attitudes of God are right and that those that are against are wrong. It takes the view that anything that God commands is ethically and morally good, and does not give any chance to argue about the morality of these deeds and propositions. (Noddings 89-95)
As discussed virtue ethics put emphasis on the character of individuals in defining ethics and morality, while utilitarian ethics give emphasis on the common benefit and interest of the general group. On the other hand Divine command ethics rely completely on divine propositions and leave no space to question the reality of the truths. (Tong 156-162)
According to Aristotle the preconditions for practical deliberative thinking include naturalism and normativism that has to do with the intentional action, which questions the capacity of an action for genuine reasoning and results. Reasons and motivation is another precondition that guides practical reasoning in that, the reasons for a deed and the expected reward or punishment dictate if the given individual will engage in the given activity. Instrumental rationality also forms another precondition of practical reasoning in that, the objective values and reasons dictate whether an individual will engage in a given act based on psychological facts. Another precondition for practical reasoning is maximizing rationality where individuals foresee current comfort, so as to attain certain set goals that can not be felt at the time. A good example for this case is the sacrificing of ones leisure time in pursuit of academic and professional success, which they deem helpful later in life. Other factors that dictate practical reasoning include the consequences that may result from a given action, the value the individual has attached to the given act and the moral reasons that the individual holds.
The human psyche is the notion of the self that determines and influences an individual’s personality, thoughts and behavior and therefore can at large be attributed to the different levels of morality in different people. The psyche is sometimes equated to the reasoning and responsive part of the human mind that forms the basis of all psychological actions and responses. (Sahakian & Sahakian 37-38)
The ways that mental power arrives at reality, pleasure, and the middle way include the processes of reasoning where the individual chooses an option or an action that seems to be of the highest value to him. The process of planning is the other mode that the intellect uses to arrive at truth and pleasure in that it makes mental formations and acts on the one that seems to yield the best results. The other way of intellectual decision making in arriving at truth and pleasure is problem solution where it seeks to give answers to areas of problems. The other ways of arriving at truth and pleasure is the ability to think abstractly, understand different ideas and the ability to learn. (Noddings 89-95)
How excellence connects to practical wisdom is based on the fact that a virtue is not a tendency to do what is good or beneficial to the person who adopts it, but is a character trait that has connection to the emotions, values, choices, and expectations of the individual among other variables. Therefore it can be argued that adoption of virtues is guided by a mindset that adopts a certain range of considerations and factors guiding the individual’s actions. Therefore the given individual should be able to behave virtuously without having to struggle against contrary wishes, and have full ability to control the wishes and temptations to do otherwise. (Kohlberg 212)
The modes life that are seen as capable of yielding happiness are living a life of pleasure, living a life of knowledge that can also be referred to as a philosophical life, living a life of practical activity and living a virtuous life with regard to reason.
The modes of caring according to Nodding include sympathy where there is motivational and attention displacement between individuals. Another mode of caring according to these ideas is that caring should be entrenched in receptability, responsiveness and relatedness. (Gilligan 240-243)
The criticisms leveled against the traditional ethical theories include that they give emphasis on economic and political relations while ignoring social relations that form a core aspect of ethics and morality. The traditional theories are also critiqued for not giving emphasis on the need for the interdependence of different individuals in ethical development and wellbeing. The other area that they are critiqued for is that they don’t give any attention to the different conditions of society that include marginalization of individuals among others. The fact that they don’t take any consideration to the background information in upholding the rights and interests of different individuals is also critiqued. The traditional theories are also critiqued for not giving consideration to the insight and gender equity on matters of ethics and morality. (Ellis 3-29)
Conclusion
In summary, the traditional theories of ethics can be argued as less extensive in explaining the field of ethics and morality. However, the modern theories of ethics are covering the areas that the traditional theories did not touch on therefore provide a better picture in explaining the field of ethics and morality. However, in practical use, more than one theoretical model should be used together so as to create a true picture of ethics and issues of morality.
Work cited
Ellis, Carolyn.” Telling secrets, revealing lives: Relational ethics in research with intimate others. Qualitative Inquiry 13,” 2007: 3-29
Gilligan, Carol. “In a different Voice: Psychological theory and women’s development.” Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1982: 240-243
Kohlberg, Lawrence. “Stages in Moral Development as a Basis for Moral Education.” In C.M. Beck, B.S.Crittenden.1971: 212
Noddings, Nel. “Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education. Berkeley”. University of California Press.1984: 89-95
Sahakian, William. & Sahakian, Mabel. Ideas of the Great Philosophers.” Barnes & Noble Books 1993: 37-38
Tong, Rosemarie. ‘Nel Noddings’s relational ethics’. In Feminine and Feminist Ethics.” Belmost, Calif: Wadsworth. 1993: 156-162