Introduction
Western Europe has experienced significant violence in the recent past due to a multiplicity of factors. In the 1980s, unprecedented riots took place in Brixton and Birmingham occasioned by deep-seated differences between migrants and the citizens. In Germany, for instance, persistent attacks on asylum seekers and refugees were received by reactionary outrage from migrants during the early 1990s when the East and west regions were getting reunited. Regions occupied by asylum seekers during this period in Germany were targeted with firebombs and stones. Migrants who had lived in Germany for a long time were equally not spared in the unfolding homophobic attacks as was the case with the manner in which Turkish citizens were tortured. This elicited widespread condemnation within Germany and other parts of the world.
Foreigners in West Europe
Racism in Germany was particularly highlighted in media debates and scholarly discussions. Asylum seekers were progressively increasing in number in Germany thanks to the Bosnian crisis and refugees from third world countries under civil war. Despite the population pressures, Germans were particularly singled out in scholarly debate as Europeans with a culture of xenophobia in their society. This is partly attributed to political and ideological differences between the conservative German society and the rest of the world. The German nationality law was also singled out as the main ingredient of the German’s exclusive nationhood that seriously suppressed efforts by foreigners to gain citizenship there.
The foreign tag in Germany was particularly attached to migrants from Western and Southern Europe especially the Turks whose population had disturbingly increased from a negligible size in 1960 to above two million at the time of the crisis. This racist and ethnic hatred against the Turks is attributed to their perceived foreign culture and religious practices which could not be integrated into the mainstream German society. Turks like other Muslim migrants such as the Algerians and the Moroccans in France and Netherlands respectively could not be assimilated as a result of religious underpinnings and cultural extremes. Integration of the Muslim culture with the predominant Christian doctrines in Western Europe hit a snag due to the competing interests that exist in both situations.
The combination of German national ideologies spiced with ethnicity rendered the Muslim Turks in their large numbers as targets for xenophobic attacks. Essentially, Turks were excluded from the mainstream German society through rampant stigmatization and discrimination. The Turks were perceived to lack “German hood” which was necessary for the integration process to take place, hence being excluded from acquiring permanent citizenship. Great Britain became the destination of choice for most migrants after the World War II especially from Commonwealth countries as well as internally displaced persons from the mainstream Europe. Neighboring Western European countries also experienced massive inflows of immigrants during the period that followed the Second World War.
Like Britain, initial migrants in France and Netherlands came from former colonies while Germany experienced massive inflows of people seeking asylum and refugee status. German citizens previously living abroad especially in Central and Eastern Europe were also included in the foreign group living in Germany. Large-scale migration into Europe was possible since economic conditions were favorable creating employment opportunities in both skilled and unskilled sectors. Unskilled labor in the industrial sector was in high demand creating room for accommodating and integrating foreign nationals into mainstream society in Western Europe.
Religious Conflicts
Religious indifference has been disseminated across the world since time immemorial. Integration of foreigners in host countries does not entirely remove their distinct identities. During assimilation, ingredients such as religion remain part and parcel of the foreigners’ identity as well as their culture. The diversity of a people in human society grants them individual identities that are unique from their counterparts. In essence, cultural and religious diversity creates tensions as far as personal and group cohesion/integration is concerned. Given enlightenment ideals, religious diversity creates conflicts in different societies in the world due to the irreconcilable issues that remain unresolved even after communities living together for a long time. Religious conflicts are often manifested through ethnic lines and racial segregation whereby foreigners are perceived as economic competitors by natives.
Integration is only achieved through tolerance of each other’s cultural and religious differences. That notwithstanding, cross-religious encounters prevailed were artisans and craftsmen from diverse religious backgrounds did printing, sculpturing, painting and other artistic objects for Christians, Lutherans, protestants and Catholics among others irrespective of their faith. Foreigners living in Germany, Netherlands, Britain, Portugal and several other West European countries were considered alien by host countries fundamentally because of the clash in culture and religion. Intimate relations were also restricted since they could not be married into native distinct national cultures. However, people within neighborhoods were expected to lend a helping hand in times of need to each other irrespective of ethnic or religious differences.
People from diverse nationalities relied on one another for medical assistance. Christians and Jews rich with the pool of physicians and health practitioners did not differentiate patients as regards to medical assistance just because of religious intolerance. Friendships therefore existed between natives and foreigners for their mutual benefit. Successful integration was, therefore, a consequence of toleration among different people. In Dutch, for instance, integration followed defined preferences with respect to people with similar cultural and religious practices. Catholics and Huguenots in Dutch intermarried, participated in trade and even employed workers from either side. The Calvinists in Germany worshipped together with Lutherans, supported similar charity courses as well as attended same schools.
People from different nationalities therefore tolerated one another along different lines of interaction which was not necessarily achieved through group integration. Individuals were at liberty to engage in business and relationships with foreign entities irrespective of ideological differences in the society. Individuals existing in a democratic society are at liberty to choose their faiths and friends without being guided by legal and religious terms and conditions. Religion is basically a matter of choice at individual level without the undue influence from the surroundings. Participation in religious matters is, therefore, a voluntary exercise.
The concept of religious communities is therefore farfetched in the modern society since the interests of the individual matter more than group engagements. When the conscience of the individual is respected, the freedom of worship in the large congregation is realized. Dutch adopted this enlightened perspective after the Revolt on Spain and further established the culture of personal liberty and conscience particularly on religious matters. Foreigners in the Seventeen century were regarded so based on the alien concept attached to their religions which were extensively perceived in Europe as irreconcilable with native doctrines.
This meant that foreigners could not be granted citizenship as their culture and religion were in opposition to national ideologies. Having been denied citizenship status, foreigners were rendered inconsequential in economic and political matters. They were basically denied access to wealth and employment opportunities as well as restricted from participating in political activities. Artisans and craftsmen were scared of foreigners because they could compete with them in the industry creating unnecessary economic challenges. Foreigners therefore lacked avenues for achieving self-sufficiency and fundamental freedoms such as human rights. Since they were excluded from active political participation and civic responsibilities, foreigners were grossly incapacitated from pursuing important goals in life.
In early civilization, households needed to adopt their servants and maids as members of their family according to Catholic traditions. The clergy was involved in ensuring that Christian doctrines are respected by the congregation. Catholic servants were therefore considered as members of their masters’ families. This was established even though servants and masters could be religiously incongruent. Protestant servants worked for Catholic masters and vice versa to save financial resources for dowry and other engagements. Domestic servants permissible to work in a religiously mixed setting were a common phenomenon in Netherlands, France and Germany.
Education was equally a religious affair. School curriculum was designed to teach children religious doctrines that conform to the ideals of the society. Catholic children were taken through catechism and related religious doctrines in order to ground cement their background in conventional beliefs of that society. Children were expected to know the truths about Christianity to the core of it.
Integration and segregation
Religious differences have for a long time developed into substantial religious conflicts which have manifested in civil wars and political battles most of which remain unresolved. Christians have long been perceived by critics as fragmented religion due to the emergence of protestant breakaway groups from the mainstream Catholic Church. Segregation of the congregation based on different interpretations of the scripture and negative ethnicity further increased the strange mentalities associated with foreigners. The Catholics have preserved their doctrines on a conservative approach away from radical doctrines associated with Protestants and Muslims to name but a few. Religious differences persisted till death since Catholics and Huguenots did not bury their dead in the same tombs. Funerals were equally conducted separately with strict adherence to their distinct doctrines.
Education in France was largely conducted in an integrated manner incorporating the Catholics, Protestants and Lutherans on board. This was not the case with Germany where schools were restricted to the different religious groups. The Catholics, Protestants and Lutherans were an isolated in the manner in which students were admitted and taught taking into account their religious doctrines. Segregation was institutionalized by law which allowed for compromises that would ensure that the constitutional freedoms of worship are never interfered with. The law also defined certain provisions for the dissenting churches that would ensure that the poor are taken good care of.
Giving of alms and helping the poor was legally structured to ensure that dissenting opinions of the various churches do not get out of the realm of human dignity. For instance, magistrates granted churches that upheld human rights tax exemptions in order to ensure that resources are available to support the poor. The provincial governments also enacted policies that were in alignment with the overriding human rights interests that cut across the board. The rich and the poor were therefore equal in church despite different religious orientations. Both owned important religious literature such as the Bible, psalm books and records of sermons that inspired their faith. The Catholics for instance treasured their devotional objects about the life of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary. Book culture was equally sustained through a collection of articles and inspirational books which identified with their doctrines in the entire Europe.
On the other hand, France encouraged integration of cultures and religions from different parts of the world so long as people existed within its territory. There were a set of common values that identified the French besides their religious inclinations. The principal value emphasized doctrinal clarity in a cohesive society across faiths. Britain as well as characterized by a public sphere that was all-inclusive exposing citizens and foreigners to a free society that incorporated everyone on board. Craftsmen, peasants and the effluent from both Catholic and Protestant backgrounds were integrated with a free society without the pressure of adhering to a certain code of conduct.
Leisured lifestyle and recreational pleasures prized neighborliness across cultures and faiths. This secular lifestyle was cherished in British society whether moral or immoral. In France, however, the Calvin clergy reprimanded the congregation on matters of morality through confessions meant to distinguish people’s commitment to dogma, rituals or political ideologies. The Mennonites in Netherlands were also forced to adhere to the established religious practices failure to which persecution and suffering were imposed as a disciplinary measure. The Dutch Calvinism introduced this disciplinary measure in order to prevent the mixing of worldliness with church doctrines in mainstream society.
Conclusion
Cross-religious encounters in the past and recent times are differentiated by the approach taken to integrate foreign nationals into the mainstream host society. The early churches were unique in the sense that people interacted within religious communities that defined the public and private spheres of life. The individual was expected to adhere to the ideals specified by the common values of the society. Deviation from common values spells doom. Foreigners therefore found themselves on the receiving end in most countries in West Europe as far as integration into host cultures was concerned.
Foreign religions were the main focus of controversy whereby host countries perceived the alien religious beliefs as contravening with structured national cultures. The Turks in Germany whose numbers had dramatically increased suffered from systematic xenophobic attacks that undermined their human dignity. Foreigners across Europe were therefore deprived of fundamental rights to life including denied citizenship. Lack of citizenship meant that foreigners could not own wealth or participate in political/civic activities. Preferences also existed between natives and certain groups of foreigners with religion being the basis of interaction. Individual friendships also existed where neighbors helped one another irrespective of religious differences especially in times of need. This is in tandem with modern belief that religion is a matter of personal choice hence voluntary.