Manfred is a dramatic poem written by Lord Byron. It describes the life of Manfred, a Romantic Hero, tormented by a tragedy that happened in the past and grieving the loss of Astarte, who was apparently dear to him. Neither the details of the tragedy nor the identity of Astarte are disclosed in the novel, but most scholars agree that the nature of the events, as well as the feelings of the protagonist, are at least partially autobiographical, and reflect the author’s inner turmoil that resulted from his failed marriage and subsequent departure from England. The poem explores the themes of guilt and justice, and manifests the fate-driven concept of justice delivered by a higher authority instead of human judgment, characteristic of Romantic Hero archetype, but the perspective it offers can be viewed as controversial if taken outside of the Romantic context and challenged with common sense.
Manfred, who lives in solitude in his castle in the Swiss Alps, is constantly haunted by memories of some event, which has apparently led to the demise of one Astarte. To find relief of this unbearable burden, he summons seven spirits from a corporeal realm to obtain the blissful forgetfulness. The spirits are powerful beings who offer him various amendments, none of which satisfies Manfred. Meanwhile, the tension increases, with bodiless voices reminding him of his guilt and recounting his past crimes. Manfred tries to commit suicide but is rescued by the hunter, who tries to comfort him. However, the turmoil persists – Manfred sees blood in a cup of wine and assumes this is the blood of Astarte. Later, he encounters Astarte’s spirit and asks her forgiveness, only to hear that his “earthly ills” will soon end. The poem ends with the death of Manfred at the hands of the Abbot but does not suggest he has found comfort through religion.
It is important to remember that Manfred is a Romantic Hero, also known as a Byronic Hero. He is thus characterized by strong affections and a powerful will. He, however, recognizes the mystical and the supernatural plane of existence as a superior authority. He never considers justice by human laws. In fact, he is seen to critique these laws throughout the poem, referring to legal force as “the torments of a public death” (3.1.90). The remoteness and solitude of Manfred’s castle also emphasize the distancing from human affairs, and his failure to find comfort both in hunter’s house and in religion further strengthen the futility of earthly dwellings. Instead, he seeks retribution from the higher plane, summoning the spirits himself. These spirits represent the ultimate authority, claiming to command the forces of nature (1.1.67-68). One may note the similarities between Manfred’s determination and the Kantian deontological ethics, which presume the adherence to absolute rules. However, certain discrepancies exist between these viewpoints. Kant views capital punishment as required measure, and suicide as unacceptable. Manfred, on the other hand, rejects capital punishment as that producing other crimes and greater criminals (3.4.123-124) and embraces suicide, viewing death as an honorable chance of becoming one’s own destroyer instead of falling somebody’s prey (3.4.138-139). When compared to Kant’s ethics, Manfred’s stance looks more like the relocating of the responsibility rather than the desire to seek for absolute justice, especially considering that he initially sought forgetfulness, not forgiveness.
To sum up, when viewing the protagonist outside of the context, he appears as self-centered and egoistic, and his views of justice seem to be biased by his feeling of superiority and pride. However, he exists within the realm of Romanticism, which makes it difficult to apply the established norms of justice. Instead, the world in which Manfred exists commands the judgment by higher authority as the only acceptable outcome.
Works Cited
Byron, George Gordon 1817, Manfred, a Dramatic Poem. Web.