Introduction
Some people are remembered in military history as key figures whose beliefs and ideologies influenced how combat was conducted. Among these great thinkers is, no doubt, the military theorist and strategist Henri Antoine Jomini, who was born in Switzerland. Following the Napoleonic Wars (NWs) of 1815, Jomini’s theories had a profound impact on the development of military tactics, shaping both strategies and creating the foundation for contemporary military theory and instruction.
Jomini’s Theories Definition
Jomini’s beliefs, as presented in his groundbreaking book “The Art of War,” center on the practical art of combat and the fundamentals of strategy. In military campaigns, he highlighted the significance of terrain, lines of action, and the turning point. Jomini’s strategy focused on using terrain effectively, concentrating forces at key locations, and pursuing goals that would ultimately lead to the enemy’s destruction. Huber (n.d. 226) confirms this by outlining, “His basic ideas, many of them influenced by his reading of Henry Lloyd, include interior and exterior lines, the decisive point, concentration of strength against weakness…”. Jomini thought that the secret to winning was to concentrate forces at key locations.
Carl von Clausewitz, a contemporary, advocated a more flexible and improvisational approach, which was in sharp contrast to his ideals. Huber (n.d. 226) explains this by mentioning, “Jomini’s approach to war was in extreme contrast to Clausewitz’s…”. Huber continues to explain that Clausewitz served in an army that was never successful until 1813. He had a somber, doubtful view of combat, and to him, war was unpredictable, illogical, and constantly a threat of being overrun.
Huber (n.d., 226) also notes that the war was traumatic for Clausewitz, and some analysts link him to the romantic tradition that emerged in art and philosophy after 1815. According to Clausewitz, planning for every eventuality in war is impossible since it is unpredictable. Malešević (2023) proves Clausewitz’s ideology that ” ‘War is the realm of uncertainty; three quarters of the factors on which action in war is based are wrapped in a fog of greater or lesser uncertainty…” (491). Jomini, conversely, believed there were set, immutable principles that applied to combat and could be learned through rigorous study.
1815 Jomini’s Theory Application
A good illustration of Jomini’s impact on warfare at the time is the 1815 Battle of Waterloo. The Duke of Wellington took a more defensive stance against the maestro of maneuver and aggressive warfare, Napoleon Bonaparte. According to Huber (n.d.) Wellington adopted the style used in Portugal, Spain, and Belgium because it was most appropriate for his situation.
Wellington’s protective approach particularly effectively countered Napoleon’s aggressive tactics. Nevertheless, both commanders made strategic judgments based on Jomini’s ideas. Apprehending the significance of the turning point, Napoleon attempted to focus his troops on obstructing Wellington’s center. Jomini’s effort on the strategic use of topography was shown by Wellington, who made good use of the terrain’s defensive advantages.
Modern Warfare Relevance
Jomini’s ideas are still relevant to contemporary military operations. In military strategy, the concepts of force concentration, selecting critical spots, and strategic movement remain essential and highly encouraged. Military leaders have used Jomini’s theories to their advantage in modern battles, such as the Gulf War (GW) and the War on Terror.
The focus on identifying and leveraging geographic characteristics and the necessity of maintaining control over vital lines of communication are similar to Jomini’s lasting impact on military approaches. French forces in North America were inspired by Jomini’s Military Technology Strategy (MTS) and Defense Strategy (DS), and Jomini placed strong emphasis on capturing enemy territory through well-planned, rapid, and accurate geometric operations. Trad (2021) explains that “Offensives increase the possibility of surprise and security (protection against surprise activities) …” (311). In line with Jomini’s focus on well-planned, precise movements, this quotation underscores the importance of offensive operations and maneuvering in achieving military objectives. To achieve operational success in modern battles, military commanders have adopted Jomini’s principles, such as offensive operations and accurate movement.
Instances of Jomini’s Impact on Modern Combat
There are three prominent examples of wars that applied the Jomini tactics to win, namely: 1991 GW, 1942 to 1943 Stalingrad Battle (SB), and 1982 Falklands War (FW). During the 1991 Gulf War, Gen. Norman Schwarzkopf’s coalition troops employed Jomini’s theory of tactical mobility to their advantage. Recognizing the significance of the moment, Schwarzkopf planned a surprise attack on Iraqi forces in Kuwait and executed a flanking maneuver across Saudi Arabia’s deserts (Rumelt 2021). This tactical move not only employed surprise but also concentrated forces at crucial sites, ultimately resulting in Kuwait’s freedom.
1942 to 1943, SB was another instance of Jomini’s ideas in action during World War II. In a lengthy urban combat, the German army, led by Field Marshal Friedrich Paulus, engaged the Soviet Red Army. Despite their early victories, the German troops were unable to deploy their forces effectively at critical junctures due to the problematic, expansive urban landscape.
On the other hand, the Soviet team successfully executed Jomini’s theory of concentration of troops, encircling the German army and winning by a landslide. Kryvyzyuk (2019) confirms this fact by mentioning, “Unexpectedness was provided with all care and severity. When sending trains by rail, even their chiefs did not know…” (68). Kryvyzyuk adds that it was envisaged that the Stalingrad Front would go on the offensive by November 20, while the Southwest and Don Fronts would launch their offensives on November 19.
Furthermore, the goal was to build the encirclement’s interior and external fronts simultaneously. Corps of tanks, motorized infantry, and cavalry formed the inner front of the surrounds. Rifle and cavalry divisions were located at the outer front; one echelon was intended to house the operational line-up of the fronts, and two echelons for the general armies (Kryvyzyuk 2019).
The main reason the Soviet forces managed their offensive at Stalingrad was that they concentrated their forces. This concentration was done close to the city and only regrouped at night while adhering to stringent mask regulations. They were able to provide the German army with unexpectedness and unawareness, which gave them a significant tactical advantage.
Concerning the 1982 FW, in accordance with Jomini’s principles, British troops, led by Major General Jeremy Moore and Admiral Sandy Woodward, strategically exploited geographical advantages. The British were effective in concentrating on maintaining control of key communication routes and on maximizing the Falkland Islands’ unique topography (Wanwarn 2019). They gained a tactical advantage over the Argentine troops by concentrating their ground and naval forces at key locations, which ultimately led to the reoccupation of the Falklands.
The Legacy of Jomini and Military Education
Jomini’s influence is not limited to the battlefield; military academies worldwide have been affected. Staff colleges, war colleges, and military institutions also study and examine his beliefs. Officers and strategists still use Jomini’s ideas as a guide, adapting them to new situations.
Jomini’s theories are still relevant today, underscoring the importance of his shaping military personnel’s intellectual underpinnings. According to Eneji and Ayomide (2023), it is challenging to pinpoint the exact beginning of scholarly endeavors undertaken under the auspices of strategic studies. However, the most notable figures in military-strategic thought before the 20th century were Baylis and Henri Jomini, the Swiss military theorist (Eneji and Ayomide, 2023).
Eneji and Ayomide continue that the first person to synthesize Napoleonic combat into a significant book on strategy was Napoleon Bonaparte of France. Otto von Bismarck, the former German Chancellor, had a significant impact on how events unfolded in statecraft and diplomacy (Eneji and Ayomide 2023). This research by Eneji and Ayomide confirms that Jomini has been resourceful in military education.
Conclusion
In summary, it is impossible to dispute Jomini’s impact on warfare in 1815 and beyond. His views were more on the practical art of war and strategic perceptions, and remained extremely influential in determining how military operations were conducted in his days. Jomini’s insights into warfare planning have stood the test of time, as seen by the use of his theories in both past wars and contemporary conflicts. Jomini’s contributions to military education are still being drawn upon, and his influence continues to shape military activities and operations.
References
Eneji, Eneji, and Ayomide Ojo. 2023. Historical scholarship and strategic studies: A relationship study. International Journal of History Research 3, no. 1: 20-30.
Huber, Thomas M. n.d. US army command and general staff school command and general staff officer course (CGSOC). Common Core H100: History, Theory, Doctrine, Practice H106: Jomini Reading H106RA. 220-280.
Kryvyzyuk, Leonid. 2019. Stalingrad strategic offensive operation (19.11. 1942-02.02. 1943): factors of success of tank for surrounding and destruction of large factions of enemy. N 2: 66-74.
Malešević, Siniša. 2023. The moral fog of war and historical sociology. European Journal of Social Theory 26, no. 4: 490-500.
Rumelt, Rechard. 2021. Good Strategy Bad Strategy: The Difference and Why It Matters. 1-38.
Trad, Antoine. 2021. Entity transformation projects-military technology strategy (DMTS). Proceedings of 12th SCF International Conference on “Contemporary Issues in Social Sciences” October, 1-47.
Wanwarn, Kullmanoch. 2019. The Falklands War. RTNA Journal of Social Sciences, Humanities and Education 6, no. 1: 15-24.