The variety of societies in West Africa is significant, and it is hard to describe the history of all of its people by finding a few common traits and historical episodes. Nevertheless, it is vital that the influence of the great rivers, the abundance of gold, Islam, and European colonization have all contributed to the history of the region. One of the most prominent episodes in the history of West Africa is the golden age of Ancient Mali, a kingdom which was a source of inspiration for the nations which emerged as a result of the decolonization process. The author of “An Epic of Old Mali” describes rich cultural traditions preserved by griots. They represent the structure of the Malinke society, the role of kings, sorcerers, Islam, and tributary relationships1. The economy of the prosperous ancient state that was based on trade and gold exports, and its culture allow for a more comprehensive understanding of both the continent’s past and future.
One of the examples of the advantages that the geography of West Africa provides is the story of the establishment and the development of the Mali Empire. The vast territories which its rulers controlled included completely different terrains, people, and cultures. The enormous deposits of gold became one of the main factors contributing to the rapid development of the state.2 The demand for the precious metal showed steady growth throughout the Middle Ages, and the lack of a similarly high concentration of gold mines in the Old World allowed the state to impose extremely high tariffs on gold trade. Moreover, the trade in copper and salt was also a major source of the initial wealth. It was used by the first Mali kings to establish institutions and the military capable of maintaining the order in the state.
Nevertheless, it is important to understand that apart from gold and the wealth generated by heavily taxing caravans, the geographical position and the cultural features of the region’s diverse population presented obstacles to creating an efficient state. In order to control vast territories, an ambitious ancient or medieval ruler had to find a concentrated source of richness which could allow for the wealth accumulation and rapid growth of the military. On the other hand, high population density sometimes encouraged different societies to join a highly centralized system. It could provide some form of not only military but economic security as well. Prior to the extensive gold mining and the establishment of stable trade relationships with North Africans and traders from the Middle East, ancient West Africa did not enjoy the two above mentioned beneficial factors. The entire region was scarcely populated in the Middle Ages.
Moreover, the geographical position of West Africa did not allow for well-established trade contacts between rather isolated settlements scattered across the country. Despite the fact that the societies that later became a part of the Mali Empire mainly included various types of farmers, herders, and even gold miners, they did not have any intention of cooperating and trading with each other. The underpopulation of the region and modest surpluses of production have historically encouraged local self-sufficiency.3 Moreover, the region’s population did not build sophisticated roads and did not utilize wheeled vehicles, preferring pack-animals. Merchants from the outside world also did not have many incentives to visit these isolated places that lacked infrastructure and ethnic make-up which made communication difficult, as various groups had different cultural features and languages.
Unlike many other regions in the world, where the colonization process was rapid and usually performed by large waves of ethnically homogeneous groups, the colonization of West Africa was relatively slow. It was mainly performed by separate episodes of small groups of pioneers making a long journey to establish a small village. Nevertheless, all the above mentioned obstacles were finally mitigated with the demographic changes, as the savanna population managed to implement agricultural and organizational techniques that led to substantial population growth. A system of kafu was also introduced mainly in the forests, as the pioneers moving deep into the forest could only make clearances in it to host a few villages. Thus, prior to the creation of Mali, most West African societies were presented by either mini-states or completely stateless groups that relied mainly on their oral cultural traditions to ensure the functioning of the society in the long run.
Around the same time, in the early Middle Ages, the locals realized all the benefits of trading with the outside world. Cities like Timbuktu prospered due to the numerous caravans entering and leaving the cities, with even minor quantities of gold, copper, and salt being taxed. Moreover, the rivers were now seen as major trade routes. All the above mentioned changes coincided with the rapid spread of Islam.4 The promotion of this religion encouraged numerous cultural advances and helped the emerging ruling class of the Mali kingdom to distinguish themselves from some of the people living within the boundaries of the state. The wealth which trade began to generate accelerated the emergence of a new ruling class, and the society, in general, began to resemble that of North Africa and the Middle East. The authoritarian rulers had enormous power, and traders enjoyed great freedoms.
Nevertheless, the conversion to Islam was not rapid, as the kings were afraid that doing so would undermine the legitimacy of their power, which was still intertwined with the traditional African religions in the eyes of many citizens. However, the prosperity finally led to a situation where the state rulers and those who lived in cities such as Timbuktu enjoyed comfortable lifestyles and were virtually integrated into the broader Muslim world, while a large portion of the population did not enjoy the merits of living in an affluent country. Therefore, the following diminished demand for gold and several other factors led to continuous wars between kings and chieftains, which further disrupted the caravan trade and resulted in the state’s failure.
The legacy of the ancient Empire continues to encourage the passionate desire of millions of people in West Africa to enhance the understanding of their own cultural identity. The history of the Mali Empire provides numerous examples of successes and failures while establishing an efficient state. The reliance on raw products exports and the inability to promote trade in other goods (such as high-quality clothes made on a narrow loom) resulted in the demise of the Empire. The attitude to the diverse population, which in many cases stayed loyal to some elements of their indigenous faiths, can also serve as significant evidence of the importance of promoting a common national identity. The strategy employed by the rulers of the legendary African state did not allow to unite a greater part of West Africa. That finally led to the colonization of the region by Europeans. Thus, the history of Ancient Mali is both a part of the glorious past and a sad example of lost opportunities. The different approaches utilized by Mali rulers at various points in history can provide West Africans with guidelines to enhance the performance of their states.
Bibliography
Iliffe, John. Africans: The History of a Continent. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Niane, Djibril Tamsir. An Epic of Old Mali. 2nd ed. Translated by G. D. Pickett. London: Pearson Longman, 2006.
Wilks, Ivor. “The Juula and the Expansion of Islam into the Forest.” In The History of Islam in Africa, edited by Nehemia Levtzion, and Randall Pouwels, 93–115. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000.
Footnotes
- Djibril Tamsir Niane, An Epic of Old Mali, trans. G. D. Pickett (London: Pearson Longman, 2006), 2.
- Ivor Wilks, “The Juula and the Expansion of Islam into the Forest,” in The History of Islam in Africa, ed. Nehemia Levtzion, and Randall Pouwels (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000), 93.
- John Iliffe, The History of a Continent, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 82.
- Djibril Tamsir Niane, An Epic of Old Mali, trans. G. D. Pickett (London: Pearson Longman, 2006), viii.