Introduction
Before the state of religious discourse within both historical and modern cinema is adequately analyzed, it is vital to understand religions, cultures, and approaches that are most frequently utilized in films. There is a stark difference between religious concepts in films presented by religious and non-religious groups or individuals.
While both adhere to historical notions, the purpose of the film may be steered according to the religious leanings of the writers, directors, and other decision-making personnel within a film’s production. Similarly, individuals may present religions other than their own within a film for numerous reasons, with certain filmmakers creating work that is disrespectful, inaccurate, and misrepresentative. Conflicts that arise from these inaccuracies are the primary cause of religious discourse within cinema to manifest and become more prevalent not only throughout the works of industry insiders but also to the viewers’ perceptions of films. The following paper observes the ways in which Islamic religion is presented by non-religious, non-Islamic but religious, Western, and Arabic filmmakers.
Definitions
Within this work, Islam refers to religion of Muslim people in which a monotheistic faith is essential and follows the teachings of Allah. Depictions of Islam-related extremism or terrorism within films both through their relation to actual Islam and the perception of Islam by the filmmakers, Arabic, and Western audiences are common themes. Christian faiths are discussed collectively and refer to any practices in which the teachings of Jesus Christ are followed. Christianity remains the leading faith within Western nations and has an undeniable influence on filmmaking, and in turn, the presentation of Islam in cinema. Ever since the early screening of films by the Lumière brothers in 1985, the depictions of figures such as Jesus Christ have been prevalent within cinema (Plate, 2018). While the study of religion in film has only emerged in the 1980s, it has a historically rich background and a consistent presence within modern cinema.
Films about Religion and Faith-Based Cinema
Initially, it is vital to understand that there is a difference between filmography with religion as a thematic or topical element and faith-based cinema. Real-world religions within films are not new, and even frequently receiving generally positive if not outstanding reviews. This can be observed with examples such as Muhammad: The Messenger of God and Silence, which had been released in 2015 and 2016 respectively (Karsli & Turkeri, 2020). Both films have received a myriad of differing reviews from both critics and audiences but have still been seen as mostly positive. As such, it can be assumed that negative responses from audiences and critics alike are not swayed purely by the existence of religion in films, but by other elements. This poses an interesting question regarding the first component of religious discourse within cinema which focuses on intent and purpose.
While films that are filled with religious themes and elements can and often are received positively, this can be said much less frequently for faith-based films. Faith-based cinema can be defined as the production of films in order to communicate and promote certain religious ideals and notions to the audience. An example of this practice involves Alex and Stephen Kendrick, brothers and directors that aim to share “the gospel without compromise” while reaching into the sphere of mainstream filmmaking (Moore, 2019). However, research has indicated that reviewers often find faith-based films negative in terms of aesthetic, social, and theological choices. The responses of reviewers may suggest that the issue lies within the approach and intent of the film, which prioritizes communication of religious material over film-essentials such as character, plot, and narrative. This issue is less likely to affect Islam faith-based cinam, not due to its content but because it is unable to compete with Western cinema both within religious and non-religious circles.
Islam in Western Cinema
However, in the sphere of religious discourse within film, Islam faces a number of other challenges. Misrepresentation and inaccurate depictions is potentially the most prevalent of the issues and occurs frequently within Western cinema that adapts Islamic characters, narratives, or other elements into film (Küngerü, 2021). Sadia Habib and Shaf Choudry, researchers with backgrounds in education and tech, have formulated a simple five-question to discern the ways in which Muslims are represented in both television and cinema (Khosroshahi, 2019). It is important to note that the test is not definitive or concretely supported by statistical data, however, it is able to allow viewers insight into the frequency of stereotyping and inaccurate depictions of Muslims in film.
The test aims to expose a number of misconceptions that have been widely spread among western audiences and include imagery or plot aspects that show five particular behaviors or identities. First, Islamic characters are seen talking about, being the victim of, or committing terrorism. Second, Muslim characters are depicted as irrationally angry. Third, Muslim characters are shown to be culturally conservative, anti-modern, and superstitious. Fourth, these characters are used to symbolize a threat to the way of life of the Western characters. Fifth, female Muslim characters are show as exclusively oppressed and male Muslim characters are exclusively misogynistic.
Islam in Non-Western and Arabic Cinema
The issues that arise with stereotyping and misconceptions regarding Islam become clear when contrasted with the depictions of Muslims in Arabic cinema. Films made for Arabic audiences or by Arabic filmmakers, whether they themselves are religious or not, do not ignore common issues that can exist within Islamic societies. A multitude of films incorporate themes of gender inequality, patriarchy, the following of religious laws, and other social issues (Almaeen, 2018). Certain nations face more unique challenges, such as the struggle to find harmony between traditionalist and moderate Islamic views among individuals in Iran. Similarly, censorship is a component that affects filmmaking within these regions severely. Frequently, filmmakers must utilize creativity to bypass censorship laws and still successfully express their thematic narrative (Chaudhuri, 2020). This is often the case with political dissatisfaction and gender politics, topics liable to some form of censorship within Islamic nations.
Arabic cinema does not exclude or completely deny the existence of the aforementioned stereotypes such as misogyny, political oppression, or religion as a source of social complications. However, it is more reflective of real Islam in that it also recognizes other vital components of not only religion, but the overarching culture affected by it (Burt, 2020). An example of this can be seen in the 2012 film Watchtower (Mixon, 2020). While it focuses on the exact and concrete roles of mothers and fathers in patriarchal societies, it does not present “the gendered stereotypes of feminine helplessness and masculine callousness” commonly attributed to Islamic societies.
Both Western and Arabic cinema make reference to Islam and its relation to other social structures or behaviors, as this is reflective of real-life examples in which religion functions on such a prevalent scale. The difference comes in the nuance that is provided to the characters, narrative, and plot in relation to religion. Examples of this can be noted in films such as Submission (2004) and The Kite Runner (2007), in which Islam is analyzed through a limited scope (Sutkutė, 2021). Submission portrays a main character that is being directly oppressed by the Islamic culture and not by authorities or communities associated with it. The protagonist lives in isolation, seemingly oppressed by anti-feminist notions of the religion. The focal point of the film aims to discuss Islamic radicalism, extremism and terrorism as opposed to feminism. The Kite Runner, based on a book written by Khaled Hosseini, an Afghan American author, does work to expose stereotypes that exist in both Western and Eastern worlds. Despite this, the film exposes Islamic characters as being lower in morals and values. Similarly, the film’s thematic core can be summarized with the relationship between Islam and terrorism.
Conclusion
Religious discourse in cinema is based on several complexities such as the mainstream rejection of faith-based cinemas and the misconceptions that arise in relation to certain religious groups. Both issues become prevalent when the presentation of Islam in cinema is concerned. Faith-based cinema with an Islamic focal point is likely to never reach Western audiences, and thereby viewers may never be informed about intricacies and specifics of Islam in film. On the other hand, Western cinema excludes nuance and the multifaceted nature of Islam in favor of stereotypical profiles that serve as plot devices. Similarly, Islamic cinema within non-Western nations suffers from censorship and can sometimes struggle to depict the vision of a filmmaker. Current religious discourse in cinema addresses a number of these issues but is limited in its ability to see a larger picture of how these factors influence each other.
References
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