Abstract
Cultural diplomacy refers to the use of the culture of a country in order to enhance its political influence (Holcombe, 2011 p. 114). Cultural diplomacy is linked to the implications of political influence by a government on its people and this is what makes the difference between international culture exchange and cultural diplomacy. This exchange refers to the interaction of cultures between different countries and this is what Japan used to try to bring about internationalization. Japan has attempted to internationalize the country to give the nationals an expanded view (Holcombe, 2011 p. 114). Internationalization is aimed at making Japan appear at the same level as other internationalized countries. The cultural diplomacy of Japan has gone through five phases of evolution and they will be discussed in this paper (Lam, 2007 p. 353). The thesis statement for the paper is that Japanese cultural diplomacy has always attempted to change the misconceptions held regarding Japan by the world (Holcombe, 2011 p. 115).
Introduction
Japan employed cultural diplomacy from the 1950s and it was followed by many changes to the current day. The initial focus of Japan in establishing cultural diplomacy was to change its image, but as time went by, this focus changed. Japan started adopting a culture exchange approach that worked well in changing its image to the outside world. There were challenges to the stages of cultural diplomacy as discussed in the paper. Also discussed are the five stages of cultural diplomacy evolution as they happened to the current day situation.
Goals of Culture Diplomacy between the 1950s And 1960s
This stage was the initial phase of cultural diplomacy in Japan, and it began in the early 1950s and ended in the late 1960s (Anderson, 2011 p. 21). The primary goal of Japan in adopting cultural diplomacy was to clear the pre-war image that the world held. Many countries saw Japan as a militaristic country, and that is why the Japanese cultural diplomacy was initiated to try to show the world that Japan was a peace-loving country (McConnell, 2008 p. 20). Japan went to the extent of distributing pamphlets and brochures during the cultural activities to portray a sense of serenity and tranquillity to the people who visited the country (Anderson, 2011 p. 192).
In addition to the traditions, Japan discouraged the promotion of various elements associated with the samurai and feudal spirits in other countries (Lam, 2007 p. 353). A good example of the prohibition is the banning of Kabuki performances in America (Anderson, 2011 p. 193). The components of these cultural practices were linked to the military and feudal traditions and that is why they were discouraged. In addition to this, Japanese education was still discouraged for a very long time, because some Japanese intellectuals still felt that there was a connection between it and the imperial ambitions of Japan. The spread of the Japanese language was discouraged because it was connected to the pre-war efforts to spread the language in Asia (McConnell, 2008 p. 18).
Culture and diplomacy changes in the 1960s and 1970s
The period marked the second phase of Japan’s cultural diplomacy. This phase was marked by portraying an image of an economically developed Japan after the Tokyo Olympics in 1964 (Otmazgin, 2012 p. 40). The second phase is marked as a shift from the picture of a peaceful Japan in the first stage to an economically advanced country in the second phase. This approach of the second stage was adopted because there were initial concerns about the economic development of Japan from America and Europe in the 1950s (Lwabuchi, 2001 p. 199). For this reason, the second phase was because of these concerns, and there were still numerous challenges of economic development. Some of these challenges include the consideration of Japan’s imports as cheap in different countries, export challenges such as accusations of market disruption, and criticism (Otmazgin, 2012 p. 41).
To counter these challenges, Japan used cultural diplomacy to show a technological and economically advancing image by promoting the idea that it was going to the next level in technological and economic development (Lwabuchi, 2001 p. 200). The activities that were conducted during this stage include the creation of the Japan Foundation in 1972 that constituted cultural exchange, promotion of Japanese studies overseas, and encouraging the Japanese language abroad (Otmazgin, 2012 p. 39). Some activities that were discouraged in the first stage, such as the Kabuki and Noh Theatre, were now introduced into the international community (Lam, 2007 p. 353). The promotion of these traditions was an indication that Japan had pride in its culture. In addition to this, the government of Japan explicitly promoted the study of the Japanese economy in other countries (Otmazgin, 2012 p. 39).
Goals of Culture Diplomacy in The 1980s
This period marked the third stage of Japan’s cultural diplomacy and it was seen as one of the three main pillars of general diplomacy in Japan (Terada, 2000 p. 177). This stage came about at a time when Japan’s economy was maturing and the country was becoming more significant in the international arena. The other pillars were the peacekeeping activities and the creation of development and economic policies (Kazuo, 2008 p. 12). This phase also focused more on cultural cooperation and cultural exchange. Cultural cooperation was seen in Japan’s activities such as providing assistance to the developing countries in theatre management, providing the necessary equipment, and providing technical support in art management (Terada, 2000 p. 176).
Another focus at this stage was to lessen the threat experienced by America and Europe since Japan’s investment and export activities had started having an impact on the world (Furuoka, 2002 p. 70). The revisionists were making efforts to reduce the threat posed by Japan and viewed Japan as a strange society that would never change (Furuoka, 2002 p. 70). CGP received a lot of support for its global agenda and the fact that it supported programs that benefited more than one country (Furuoka, 2002 p. 73).
In addition, Japan also focused on changing its image in Asia, where the Asians did not consider the Japanese’s ideas (Lwabuchi, 2002 p. 22). Japan remained absent in Asia all this time, even though there were many Japanese automobiles and goods in the Asian market. Asia developed a “faceless Japan” image and this triggered the use of cultural diplomacy in order to eradicate this negative image (Lwabuchi, 2002 p. 23). The cultural diplomacy also focused on trying to assist the Japanese to understand the Asians by introducing the Asian’s way of thinking about Japan. For example, there was the development of the ASEAN-Japan Centre in Tokyo, to show the incorporation of Asian ideas in the country (Lwabuchi, 2002 p. 30).
Goals of Culture Diplomacy in The 1990s
This period was characterized by globalization that was experienced by most of the developed countries at that time. Globalization came with challenges in growth and financial deficits causing Japan to take a new approach to cultural diplomacy (Kazuo, 2009 p. 50). The artistic activities started being part of Japan’s culture at this time and they played a significant role in international activities. The trade policies were applied in such a way, that people were allowed to participate in international festivals, music and book affairs, and the content industry. Many countries have developed at a high rate hence this forced Japan to develop ways of handling the changing trends (Kazuo, 2009 p. 50).
Japan in the 2000s
This period is the stage that we are still in, and it is characterized by the development of policies for building peace through the cultural exchange (Kazuo, 2009 p. 51). The focus is not to create a public image, but to eliminate war and make peace between Japan and other countries (Lam, 2007 p. 353). The cultural exchange also focuses on the elimination of the root that causes wars such as distrust, misunderstandings, misconceptions, and resolution of conflicts (Kazuo, 2009 p. 51). Japan understood that peace cannot merely indicate the absence of war, but actions have to be taken to ensure that war does not take place by eliminating the causes. Healing the pains of conflicts was an aspect of the peace efforts in Japan, and cultural exchange was aimed at relieving the psychological impacts of war on those affected (Kazuo, 2009 p. 52).
The Impact of Globalization on Japan
Economic development was promoted by globalization in that Japan became a member of the international community and this encouraged trade (Kazuo, 2008 p. 4). In addition to this, there was the incorporation of foreign culture in Japan and this encouraged the interaction between the people of Japan and the rest of the world. During the time of globalization, the Japanese language has spread across the world and this communication was made easier (Kazuo, 2008 p. 4). Japan has also developed responsibility and maturity in the international community and this was an image that needed to be protected. Japan also started focusing on the combination of technology with the traditional culture as a way of honoring the Japanese traditions (Kazuo, 2008 p. 4).
Globalization also changes the focus of Japan’s public and cultural diplomacy, since the growth of other nations and other South Asian countries have an effect on its development (Bukh, 2014 p. 470). Japan was portrayed as the only country in Asia that has advanced economic advancement. Globalization also came with different challenges, such as difficulties in getting financing to organize overseas cultural activities (Kazuo, 2008 p. 6). Due to globalization, there are difficulties in identifying a country’s culture because of the cultural exchange that has taken place. Japan is, as a result, characterized by some traits of an ultramodern culture that did not initially belong to Japan (Bukh, 2014 p. 476).
The Importance of Changing the Traditional Partners of Culture Diplomacy
Changes help in creating a culturally diverse Japan, other than creating an image that is not characterized by a rich culture (Bukh, 2014 p. 463). In addition to this, the cultural diversity approach by Japan benefits all humankind and it is not necessarily a property owned by Japan. The innovations that came with the cultural exchange enhanced peace, development through the incorporation of traditional activities that will always have remembrance and passing across generations (Lam, 2007 p. 352 ). Japanese culture has also had an impact in other countries with some learning to appreciate the Japanese culture in the way it unites people. These cultures are also practiced in countries such as America and the Japanese language has been adopted across the world (Lam, 2007 p. 353).
Conclusion
The initial focus of Japan in creating a good image seems not to have worked better than the incorporation of culture in bringing peace (Lam, 2007 p. 353). The traditional approaches to cultural diplomacy need to be changed to keep up with the changes resulting from globalization. However, Japan seems to be doing quite well at the fifth stage, since there is an established international image. Sharing Japan’s traditions and cultures more widely will also benefit and enrich human society and it will contribute to global peace and diversity (Bukh, 2014 p. 462). People affected by conflicts have also had an opportunity to heal and take pride in their Japanese culture.
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