Introduction
The basic reason for learning is to archive an ability to communicate effectively and convey information efficiently. Future endeavours of a learner depends on his/her ability to understand the importance of knowledge acquisition and embrace the fact that learning determines one’s future prospects.
Appreciating the need to obtain skills and knowledge is crucial since the procedure of acquisition requires patience from both the learner and trainer. Learning involves the conscious mind that various learning regulations that are simple requirements as opposed to tough form of drilling as most learners think.
The learning process is however gradual for instance, when learning a new language, the skills acquisition procedures involves first attaining the listening before the speaking skills. The fluency, mastery or proficiency of skills occurs latter on during the process of learning when one starts to specialize in the field of study.
General Definition of Learning
According to (2008), learning is ability to understand behavioural changes occurring due to person’s ability to survey some insatiable aspects of life, which often occur due to curiosity.
Stipulation that learning is a practice that changes behaviours is a clear indication that the approach Pritchard considers shows that learning is the outcome or product of performing a certain action or undergoing a given process (2008). In this case, learning is recognizable since it is a highlight of various crucial aspects of a lifestyle especially changes of behaviour.
A good learner must place huge amount of effort such as keenness and patience within a give attempt. In line with Pritchard, one of the key aspects of learning involves ability to recognize that it is only possible to achieve improvements if the input is comprehensible and does not necessarily force productivity (2008). For that reason, the most effective way of learning is by ensuring adherence to professionalisms and proficiency.
Learning Skills
According to Leonard, various research findings attribute learning as an articulate procedure where one is able to consider both the input and output as essential aspects in accruing knowledge (2002). Effective learning must therefore involve some form of interaction between the learner and tutor since the learner must contribute through participation. The input is consequently the learner’s contribution, while the output from the learning process is the ability to comprehend and use the leant skills productively.
Learning new skills or acquiring knowledge depends on personal ability to understand and have a personal interpretation of the aspects that assist in logical revelation of various outputs (Swain, 2005). According to Swain, personal interpretation of various aspects forms the basis for learning or acquiring new skills effectively (2005).
On the same procession of defining learning, Swain’s explanation of learning includes ability to use a variety of learnt functions fluently, to build personal skills. Secondly, the learner must have the ability to take note of functions that can trigger the conscious mind into achieving an objective. Lastly, the learner must be in a position of engaging deep thoughts as a utility that enhances easy and enjoyable learning (2005).
Analysis of Learning Procedure
In accordance with Van Patten’s (2003) learner’s contribution involves ability to identify the unrestrained involvement that the learner hears or is able to read in context and meaning. Learning is thus a procedure that must involve an interactive environment and other illustrative aspects that assist to exemplify meaning.
A learned person expresses his/her understanding of meaning through manipulation of tasks or formulation of personal meaning during interaction. Failure to use the acquired skills leads to stalemate. This is a clear support to the notion ‘practice makes perfect’ and the expression applies to learning procedure as well.
With a close reference to swain’s explanation of the meaning of learning, students often fail to interpret or use the acquired knowledge in their day-to-day activities because they lack interest or have poor foundational skills (2005). Failure is not overcome through better or long-learning sessions but through practice, application or general use of the acquired skills.
Literature Review on Learning
Learning is a procedure that involves acquiring knowledge, which is achieved through experience, training and interaction (Lipshirtz, 2000). Ability to acquire, sustain and eventually change an aspect depending on interpretation of meaning and joint actions is very important. Lipshirtz also defines learning as an ongoing system set within a social-cognitive system (2000).
A sustainable form of learning therefore comprises of a coordinated system where various aspects are built in as procedures, guides and cultural setting for group or individuals to access, use as well as modify. This form of knowledge acquisition is a measure that involves integration of knowledge for expertise performances.
What Is Learning?
At no one given time has there been correct definition of learning. According to Wakefield, many scholars, lecturers and professors have tried to put down several explanations and meaning to learning with no avail (1996). Wakefield described learning as “a relatively permanent change in the behaviour of an individual based on his/her experiences or discoveries” (1996).
This definition meant that knowledge that learners get determines the quantity as well as quality of knowledge needed for various life applications. The definition as a result emphasized on the need to form a transition from possession of knowledge to knowing where that knowledge need to be applied, and how to apply.
What Is Knowledge?
Knowledge is far different from learning in a curriculum form of schedule. Acquiring knowledge is a more human-based procedure than just being taught. Various researchers have come up with their own ways of defining and interpreting the meaning of knowledge.
According to Eggen, ‘Bruning, Schraw and Ronning’ were theorists who compared three types of knowledge that comprised of Declarative, Procedural and Meta-cognitive knowledge (2001). These researchers found that declarative knowledge has reference to information and factual analysis.
The procedural form of knowledge is based on skills, which are mainly concern with performing various educative tasks and other related executive or formal assignments. The meta- cognitive was defined as the way people think and how people are able to create awareness about process of reflecting through various aspects (Eggen, 2001).
The knowledge that people encompass over particular subjects is called knowledge, based on a particular domain called the “Domain knowledge” (Eggen, 2001). This form includes declarative, procedural and meta-cognitive knowledge. In line with Eggen, the study of the nature of knowledge is known as epistemology (2001).
For this reasons, there has never been any theory about learning and knowledge that emerged to be superior to others. Theories have therefore been known to create platforms for practical assessment of the meaning of learning and progressive analysis.
These theories and practical implementation of learning therefore meet at a point called praxis, that means creating a method of teaching or explaining the meaning of learning (Eggen, 2001).
What Is Teaching?
Teaching is vital because it creates a link between the learning process and the knowledge acquired by the learner. The duty of the teacher is to guide through or assist students in gathering the required skills or knowledge about a certain aspect of life.
Teaching therefore provides the platform for interaction between the teacher and students. According to Schunk, teaching can be classified into three categories namely planning interaction and assessment (2011).
In planning, the teachers think about the outcome of their interaction with students. Here they design learning experiences where learners ought to be involved. Interaction is thus the rapport created between the teacher and the learner.
The teacher should also assess the teaching experience to find out chances of misunderstanding or lack of understanding and consequently assist the learners who never got their preferred outcome.
Learning Theories
Over the years, learning theories have been frightening most researchers since they worry that such studies have a connection to various dictionary terminologies and logical jargon. Learning theories can be referred to as the theoretical psychology of understanding concepts and diverse human actions such as need to acquire knowledge. Learning theories can also be interesting besides being complex.
The complexities and interests to advanced discoveries have resulted to implementation of more diverse approaches that assist in formulation of positive attitudes towards educational theories, especially those presented by different researches.
The greatest effect of diverse theories is often seen in learning institutions like Colleges and Universities, where performance can be analyzed and students classified in reference to their performance. Some students perform incredibly well in practical papers but fail in theory.
Some of the common learning theories form an analysis of these differences, where psychologists are keen on the trend that occur when changes are made on teaching procedures. Various theories also emphasize the need to unveil new or effective learning and teaching skills.
Behaviourism
In references to his 19th century the book, ”The Origin of Species”, Charles Darwin concluded that despite the fact that human being are different and unique from other animals, they have similar biological characteristics to other members of the animal kingdom (Schunk, 2011).
Thorndike Theory
Arguably, from the preceding theories approaching the 20th century, Thorndike made an experiment to study behaviour of cats and dogs. He designed a puzzle box where an animal was kept. This animal had to learn the procedure of pressing a lever that would consequently open a locked door.
The procedure was an experiment to measure the animals’ intelligence, since Edward wanted to know whether the animals learn through imitation or observation.
He noticed that an animal was likely to come out of a situation where it had been, by means of the same skill it used before, particularly when rewarded by the owner for the proficiency (Schunk, 2011). This confirmed that rewards act to strengthen stimulus-response associations.
Watson Theory
JB Watson based his research after the classical conditioning that was founded by Ivan Pavlov. The research revealed that a dog’s behaviour would turn into a habit (Schunk, 2011).
This was also part of his analysis of human learning. Just like the dog, human beings also have habits that originate from common behaviours. For instance, a reading habit can emerge from an initial simple and inevitable behaviour to reading with the intention of performs well.
Skinner Theory
In 1930s, BF skinner did numerous researches on rats and pigeons. They included teaching a pigeon to dance by bringing into play some rewards that were given for a good performance. After the experiment, skinner was able to discover same peculiar habits of learning in human beings (1966).
He wrote that “while we are awake, we act upon the environment constantly, and many of the consequences of our actions are reinforcing” (skinner, 1966). In his theory, he concluded that human beings possess various behavioural aspects as indicated below.
Criticism of behaviourism
- Views learning as a personal occurrence in a passive state
- Does not account all types of learning
- Does not explain forms of learning like languages
Gestalt Theory
According to Pritchard (2008), Gestalt theory was propagated by Kohler, Koffka and Wertheimer. The theory emphasized on the existence of higher order in cognitive process of managing behaviours. It states that knowledge is an element like the one of proximity, similarity, closure and simplicity elements, which are used to determine human behaviours.
This theory indicates that from 1887 to 1967 Kohler researched through chimpanzees as they solved their problems. Through his research analysis, he concluded that learning in apes took place through an act of insight.
In 1959, Worhteimer presented his research through use of examples from Galileo and Einsten’s findings, where he indicated that problem solving was the ability to see the overall structure of a problem and come up with a conclusive solution.
Cognitive Theory
This theory indicates that knowledge acquisition as a process of providing the learner with absolute guidance (Pritchard, 2008).
Piaget Theory
Between 1896 and 1980, Jean Piaget who was a psychologist and pioneer in the study of child intelligence believed that humans’ capacity to think and learn was an adaptation that helped them to deal effectively in their environment. His research was in three stages namely sensor-motor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational stages (Leonard, 2002).
Constructivism Theory
This theory views knowledge as a constructed entity. The theory is based on meaning, parts and application of knowledge. According to Schunk, between 1896-1934 Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist noted that humans are the only living things that had cultures (2011). The theory showed how children traced characters from their parents.
This is a clear indication that learning is therefore dependent on social interaction of human beings. On the other hand, Bruner’s research was based on child development as he worked with children in a similar manner as Piaget’s research. He identified three stages of development, which included enactive, iconic and symbolic stage (Schunk, 2011).
Forms of Learning
Administrative Learning
This is a more comparative method of knowledge acquisition that denies competitors chances of imitating others. Administrative learning is a continual procedure that caters for the cumulative procedure of molding unique characteristics of performance. Uniqueness makes it hard for others to impersonate.
The learning is thus a sustainable form that involves acquisition, distribution, application and translation of knowledge especially for the applications or daily operation procedures. Administrative learning is illustrated in the chart below (Reason, 2010).
According to Reason (2010), the school setting has the potential to produce various forms of resources such as human ability, social relationships and organizational capital, which are essential aspects of ensuring sustainability.
The enhanced learning therefore provides learners with some form of independent abilities such as professionalism that support other dependent aspects such as human, social and organizational capital. These human values have interactional effects that influence behaviour and action and eventually produce a form of sustainability.
Human Capital for Sustained Learning
A School or learning institution has potential to instil required knowledge as a measure of enhancing growth. The ability to support unique entities or resources in support for higher knowledge levels is the sustainable human capital (VanPatten, 2003).
Some unique learning activities implemented in institutions include selection of information, and training or exposure to activities in the aim of enhancing required experiences or expertise. There is a huge advantage when an individual is involved in learning since it leverages the team resourcefulness through organizational contribution.
Other benefits of having a school setting include the ability to have limited and controlled form of competition, that enhances batter knowledge based growth or participations.
The learner within a school setting are obliged to find measures of disseminating acquired knowledge or individual resources to various sectors especially on the work-based platforms for extra benefits and applications. The organizational change therefore emerges from the new skills that various school-based challenges present.
Learning institutions assist in enforcing or discovering and nurturing young talents. The institutions also cater for unique skills as well as strategic knowledge. Knowledge is also distributed to those who need it and there is an overall benefit for firms. Need to advance and manage human capital remain one of the main reason why people have to guarantee that learning is the most feasible way of advancing.
According to VanPatten, development of human capital means ability to nurture performance proficiency, reasonable agility and individual’s unique skills (2003). Learning institutions also provide organizations with key resources that enhance management of system structures, reputation and intellectual abilities.
However, school-based learning is a process that is highly dependent on previous experiences especially on the individual efforts and amount of accumulated knowledge. Learning is hence a process that depends on social growth, collaboration and emulation efforts in an intrinsic and collective manner.
The involvement of individuals causes formation of logistic activities and unique techniques that makeup the cultural routine. Institutional learning is thus a form of interaction where learners and tutors form a formal but social form of interaction and build rapport to enhance exchange of knowledge.
In line with Lipshirtz, learning is a social capital way of enhancing interaction to share knowledge (2000). The process of learning is unique in every organization and therefore difficult to control or impersonate especially among competitors.
Sustainable Organizational Learning
Learning calls for those involved to implement a competitive performance level. The differences associated with performances provide learners with the advantage of ability to form various improvements that respond to advancement of the work environment. For example, learning enables people to accept and implement technological changes as they occur.
In line with Reason, “leading a learning process requires people who are willing to discover the reasons for problems’ existence, thus posing questions to existing systems and challenging the occurring paradoxes” (2010). In current situations, learning institutions indicate that there is a fast and aggressive transformation of technology and business markets.
This is a call for implementation of latest applications and other achievement aspects. The social and technical characteristics also assist in maintaining a competitive edge due to need for enhanced complexity in performances, as a way of making certain that learners get useful knowledge.
Performance challenges involve learning and translation of knowledge requires the school organization to can come up and implement various ways of transferring knowledge distinctively in the aim of meeting various requirements such as support of competence among aspiring professionals.
The procedural activities of a school have a social correlation between the way a school functions and the internal policies, teaching strategies and organizational culture of the institution. These are the reasons why it is possible that learners are able to understand, facilitate and implement various behavioral changes that are concern with improvement of performance levels.
The recourse-based theory of acquiring knowledge assists in analysis of tangible aspects that relate to competitiveness of the environment and devotion of various internal strengths.
A learning institution is in a position of devoting the learning process to the development issues such as environmental provision. Acquiring knowledge therefore assists in neutralizing threats, while making the best use of competitiveness and resources for excellent performance.
Conclusion
Development depends solemnly on acquisition, transfer and sharing or knowledge and developmental skills. The technological advancement of various sectors is a clear indication that every person must acquire the required skills for enhancing performance. Knowledge is an intellectual asset that determines the sustainability of organizations through enhanced competition and maintenance of skill that enhance further knowledge growth that is important for the competitive markets.
Knowledge acquisition and management is therefore an arrangement that presents people with the ability to share information, skills and strategies. Learning is a system that is increasing competitiveness and thus enhancing quality of goods and services.
References
Eggen, P. & Kauchak D. (2001). Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms. 5th Edition. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Leonard, D. C. (2002). Learning theories, A to Z. Connecticut, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Lipshirtz, R. (2000). Exploring the divide-Organizational learning and learning Organization. The learning Organization, 10, 4: 202-215.
Pritchard, A. (2008). Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the
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Reason, C. (2010). Leading a learning organization: The science of working with others. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
Schunk, D. H. (2011). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. Boston, Ma: Allyn & Bacon, Incorporated.
Skinner, B.F. (1966). Science and Human Behaviour. New York: MacMillan
Swain, M. (2005). The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research. In E. Hinkel (Ed) Handbook on Research in second language teaching and learning, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
VanPatten, B. (2003). From Input to Output: A Teacher’s Guide to Second Language Acquisition. In James F. Lee＆Bill Vanpatten, The McGraw-Hill Second language professional series. Direction in second Language learning. USA: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Wakefield, J.F. (1996). Educational Psychology: Learning to be a Problem-Solver. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.