Introduction
The Manhattan Project was a code name for a military project that was conducted during World War II between 1942 and 1946. It is however believed to have officially started in 1939 after President Roosevelt responded to a letter written by the famous physicist, Albert Einstein, expressing his concern that nuclear weapons were being developed by the Nazis. This concern was also fuelled by recent research that had shown uranium could produce large chain reactions that could be used in powerful bombs.
The purpose of the Manhattan project was to develop atomic bombs that were the first to ever be created in the world. The atomic bombs would be used in the War against Germany by countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. The atomic bombs were made of nuclear material that would biologically destroy a large section of the target area and its inhabitants.
Albert Einstein drafted his letter to the President together with Leo Szilard who had escaped the Nazi regime in Germany to the United States. Both Einstein and Szilard believed that the German’s were creating nuclear weapons that would be used in destroying countries that opposed Fascist oppression.
President Roosevelt responded to Einstein’s letter by informing him that he had set up a committee that would be used to conduct research on uranium and its use in atomic bombs. President Roosevelt appointed Robert Oppenheimer to head the Manhattan Project and to oversee the research and project facilities that were based in various parts of America (Gosling, 1999).
The Manhattan project derived its name from the location of its early operation centers which was Manhattan Island in New York City. The island was chosen because of its port facilities as well as a large military presence. Other locations that were used in the production and research of the atomic bombs included New Mexico, Tennessee, Richland, Washington, Canada, Oak Ridge and Los Alamos. These locations were chosen because of their remoteness and because they allowed for secrecy of the research facilities.
The secrecy and remoteness made it possible to obtain large supplies of raw materials and labor as well as make decisions without any political interference. The amount of money that was invested in the project amounted to $2.2 billion dollars that was mostly used in conducting research on the effects of uranium and how this compound could be used in developing atomic bombs (Gosling, 1999).
The New Technology Derived From the Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project has been considered by many chemical and nuclear scientists to be the revolution in technology, warfare and moral ethics. The technology that was used in creating the atomic bomb was viewed to be more advanced and developed than the scientific technology that existed before that time.
The high level of scientific and technological innovations used in separating the uranium neutrons was used in the development of chemical weapons and technology that would be used by the US military and scientific institutions (Hughes, 2002).
The Federation of American Scientists (FAS) was a nonpartisan organization established in 1945 by scientists and chemical engineers who were involved in the Manhattan Project. This organization was created because of the important part that science and technology played during the development of the atomic bomb.
The main goal of the FAS was to develop and advance scientific technology that would be used in providing solutions to security and scientific problems in the US. The main programs that fell under the FAS included the strategic security program, the bio security program, the earth systems program and the educational technologies program (FAS, 2010).
The strategic security program was developed to control atomic energy developed during the Manhattan Project. The program was focused on reducing the risks that came from nuclear exposure. The technologies that emerged from this program included portable air defense systems and chemical, nuclear weapons.
The bio security program concentrated on researching on ways that would be used to balance science and security. The scientific and technological work that emerged from the bio security program included biodefense research and biosecurity policies. The educational technologies program focused on how innovative technologies derived from the Project could be used for teaching and learning purposes (FAS, 2010).
The program designed and developed games and learning tools that would be used in the learning process. A major project of the educational technologies program is the Immune Attack game simulation that teaches high school students the inner workings of the body by navigating a tiny drone through the various circulatory and immune systems within the human body.
The Immune Attack project developed by FAS was a program that was meant to introduce molecular and cellular biology in a more visual way to high school and college students.
The earth systems program was developed to examine how the earth’s natural resources interacted with international security. This program was developed as a means of allowing people to use technology to better their lives. The technological innovations that emerged from this program included prefabricated components, composite materials, indoor air quality, and energy efficiency (FAS, 2010)
Since the development of the bomb, chemical scientists and physicists the world over continued to conduct research on how nuclear or atomic technology could be used to make even more powerful bombs. Research into how nuclear energy could be used to power submarines, ships and power whole cities was also been conducted.
This research was mostly based on the Atomic Energy Commission’s (AEC) atomic energy research program that saw the development of the hydrogen bomb, the nuclear-powered submarine and the first public utility nuclear power plant in the United States (Herrera, 2006).
The research was also based on the technology that went into the creation of the atomic bomb has been used in creating volatile anesthetic agents such as methoxyflurane, halothane and halogenated ethers. The atomic bomb technology also improved the research information that existed on organofluorine chemistry and halogen agents. This was possible when the chemical engineers and nuclear physicists developing the bomb conducted the exercise of separating uranium 235 from uranium 238 (Angelo, 2004).
The collaboration that has taken place over the years between state, military, industry and university specialists in the development of military and scientific technology has been a result of the Manhattan Project. The institutions that were used in creating the atomic bomb in the Manhattan Project formed the foundations of postwar technology.
The most important wartime technology organization that emerged in the US was the National Defense Research Committee which was later changed to the Organization for Scientific Research and Development (OSRD).
This organization oversaw many scientific and technological projects that were used during and before World War II. The two most important projects that emerged from the OSRD included radar research and uranium project research work. The radar research which was later renamed to Radlab developed 150 technological innovations in the form of radar and electronic systems (Herrera, 2006).
The energy crisis that took place in 1973 saw the United States experiencing a sharp increase in fuel and oil prices as well as related oil products. Until the energy crisis, energy research and development activities were mostly focused on the development of nuclear power which was under the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).
The commission was formed by the U.S. Congress after the Manhattan Project to manage civilian and military projects that were related to nuclear and atomic energy in 1946. To respond to the energy crisis, the US Congress incorporated the research and project facilities that were used in the Manhattan Project into the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and the Atomic Energy Commission (Stine, 2009).
The technologies were proposed to improve the energy problem that was being experienced by the United States included developing alternative technology vehicles that would require less harmful energy sources, developing and building energy efficient buildings that would use no more than 50 percent of the energy used by buildings of a similar size and type, constructing a large scale solar thermal power plant that would be capable of generating 300 megawatts or more at a cheaper cost.
Other technologies included developing biofuels that do not exceed 105 percent and developing carbon capture facilities that will be used in large scale coal burning (Stine, 2009).
Some of the scientists who were involved in the Project used radionucleides in localizing radioactive isotopes that would be used in destroying cancerous cells. Before the Project was started, cancer patients were mostly treated through surgery which most of the times was not successful.
But after the Project was completed radiographic and chemotherapy technology was developed by engineers involved in the project to treat cancerous cells and tumors. This involved introducing the radioactive isotopes in the radiographic and chemotherapy treatments (Lenoir & Hays, 2010).
The Manhattan Project also saw the improvement and development of Aerospace technology such as the American heavy bombers (B-29 Super fortress) that were used in the Japan bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The sophisticated weaponry used these bombers included the bombsights, radar technology and high performance engines that would be used in bombing locations. This technology mostly relied on the scientific innovations that were used in the Manhattan Project (Kelly & Rhodes, 2007).
Benefits and Dangers of the New Technology
While the Manhattan Project achieved its goal of creating the first atomic bomb, there were several benefits and dangers that emerged from the technology that was used to develop the bomb. The benefits of the Manhattan project and the technology used in developing the nuclear weapons were used in the medical field to perform radiography operations as well as chemotherapy for cancer patients.
The atomic bomb technology was also used in developing CAT scan machines that would be used in hospitals and medical practices. Another benefit of the Manhattan Project and its technology was that it led to the end of World War II and the Cold War (Elish, 2008).
The fact that the United States possessed a powerful weapon that would cause devastating effects such as those experienced in Hiroshima ended any form of communist era and dictatorship.
The large scale defense program also paved the way for other government research installations that would be used in developing military weapons. The technology that was used in developing the nuclear bombs also paved the way for scientific research work that would be used in developing alternative energy sources from oil such as nuclear or atomic power.
The project also demonstrated the fast response of the government and top scientists when it came to responding to the Nazi threat. The development of the bomb in such a short period of time also showed that the US government was determined to protect the livelihoods of American citizens regardless of the consequences. The dangers or pitfalls of the Manhattan Project were in evidence after the Hiroshima bombings in Japan (Kelly & Rhodes, 2007).
The rain that accompanied the bomb explosion was heavily contaminated with radioactive particles that led to radiation poisoning on the affected civilians. High levels of poisoning led to the death of many innocent people while those who survived the bombings suffered from sever burns, vomiting, hair loss, loss of eyesight, nausea and vomiting. The Manhattan Project was also infiltrated by spies from the Soviet Union who were also keen in developing nuclear weapons.
Klaus Fuchs was a Soviet spy who had infiltrated the Los Alamos research facility as a scientist. Fuchs gathered information and technology that was used in developing the atomic bomb and relayed it to the Soviet Union who speeded up the development of the Soviet bomb. Another Soviet spy was Donald Maclean who also relayed information on the potential of the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union (Kelly & Rhodes, 2007).
Other spies included Theodore Hall, Allan Nunn May and Bruno Pontecorvo who all served as scientists in the Manhattan Project. Such a high number of spies in the United States created an environment of anxiety and fear amongst the American Citizens feared an attack by the German Nazis. The Manhattan Project also increased the emotional and psychological well being of American civilians and civilians in the rest of the world because of the threat of nuclear power and its devastating consequences.
Social and Cultural Effects of the Manhattan Project
The period of World War II and the Cold War saw the United States experiencing the varied and far reaching effects of the two wars. The country experienced an increase in economic activity and the production, manufacturing industry began to pick up. There were notable developments in aerospace, electronic and atomic energy technology which was mostly attributed to the Manhattan Project.
While the Manhattan Project was lauded by many to be a major breakthrough in research and development as well as in energy technology, there were fundamental forces that would seem unethical in today’s socio cultural context that drove the creation of this historical technological achievement (Koistinen, 2004).
These forces included the ability to change the program from a threat or cause of national concern to a concrete goal that can be used in future innovations and the future use of the technology that was used in developing the atomic bomb. The first factor describes the goal of the Manhattan Project which was to respond to a threat of enemy development of a nuclear bomb by the Nazis in Germany.
The second factor describes the use of the technology which was primarily shifted to the government which had little or no concern on the environment and the devastating consequences of the nuclear weapons on innocent civilians (Stine, 2009).
Most of the researchers who took part in the Manhattan Project weighed their ethical values when they got involved in the development of a weapon that would cause unprecedented death and destruction when released to the general population. The risks had to be outweighed against the anticipated benefits of using the biological product during the war.
The knowledge that the US government was in possession of nuclear weapons also created some levels of apprehension and anxiety amongst the American citizens. This was at a time when the country was experiencing poor economic growth and the American citizens were struggling to make ends meet. The quality of life during World War II and the Cold War was also poor as many American’s lived under the constant fear of being attacked by the Soviet’s and the Germans (Koistinen, 2004).
The Manhattan Project marked the beginning of nuclear science that transformed the everyday lives of the average American. Civilians found themselves within a new global context that was characterized by the presence of dangerous atomic bombs and nuclear weapons.
The detonation of the first atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki marked the end of one era and the beginning of another. The localized effects of the Manhattan Project challenged the social purpose of the project as well as the ethical practices of the US government, politicians, scientists and engineers involved in the making of the bomb.
The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was viewed by most Americans to be an unthinkable engagement by the government in ending human life. The nuclear bomb was seen to be an incomprehensible national and cultural project whose effects constantly exceeded the modern logistics needed to build nuclear facilities.
The communities that were most affected by the Manhattan Project included the Los Alamos community in New Mexico where most of the nuclear tests were performed. The community members benefited from the research facility as they were able to gain employment in the laboratories (Masco, 2006).
Political and Technological Effects of the Manhattan Project
The political and technological effects of the Manhattan Project were felt on different levels which were the individual, domestic and the international level. On the individual level, many people who were involved in the Project had their ethics and moral values tested when they were called upon to create a nuclear weapon that would kill many people within a certain radius. The ethical and moral integrity of the scientific and engineering team was put to the test because of the nuclear bombs.
Robert Oppenheimer who was the lead director of the Manhattan Project faced several ethical dilemmas as a scientist because of his role in the creation of a deadly weapon that was deemed to be illegal and detrimental to both human beings and the natural environment.
When President Roosevelt died, the helm of presidency was continued by Harry Truman who and made the decision to drop the bomb in Hiroshima after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. His decision was viewed by many people around the world to have been unnecessary as it lead to the loss of thousands of innocent civilian lives in Hiroshima. The bomb also caused unnecessary health complications to civilians who were within the radius of the nuclear bomb explosion (Edmondson, 2009).
The domestic effects of the Manhattan Project were felt in the United States when the money used in developing the bomb would be used in developing the country’s defense budget from that period to the present. The creation of the atomic bomb also made the United States to be the world’s superpower when it came to its military and defense.
The negative effects of the project to the United States residents was that it created a certain amount of fear in the American residents as they feared infiltration by communist dictators and sympathizers. This fear saw Senator Joseph McCarthy performing a witch hunt in the US that was meant to flash out the communist sympathizers and spies from the country. The result of this witch hunt was the destruction of many civilian lives that were suspected to be communist sympathizers (Kelly & Rhodes, 2007).
The international effects of the Manhattan Project saw the face of world politics during that time changing completely. After the Hiroshima bombings in Japan, the Soviet Union began developing itself to be the next country to develop nuclear power. The country was able to gain information on how to create an atomic bomb from Klaus Fuchs who was a Manhattan Project scientist and Soviet spy.
This situation created a security dilemma between the two countries as each increased its nuclear arsenal to counter any attacks from the other. The effects of this situation were that each of the countries sunk a huge amount of funds in developing the nuclear arsenals which saw them facing huge debts. There was also emotional and psychological effects on US citizens who lived with anxiety and fear of being attacked by the Soviet Union at any time (Kelly & Rhodes, 2007).
The Manhattan Project and Its Use in Medical Science
Since the end of the Cold War, policy makers have raised concerns over importance of federal investment in scientific research. Policy makers have called for a new contract to be developed between science and society that would foster a closer working relationship between scientific laboratories and scientific academicians. Such a model for the science and society contract is known as the Human Genome Initiative.
This initiative has been viewed as a potential Manhattan Project for biological work among scientists, engineers and physicists who are mostly concerned with the commercial production of biomedical technology that will be used in medical science. The Human Genome Initiative incorporates the same approaches and techniques that were used by the Manhattan Project in developing warfare weapons that would be used during the Cold War (Lenoir & Hays, 2010).
Lenoir and Hays (2010) note that after the Cold War there has always been a Manhattan Project in the field of biomedicine and medical science. The scientists and physicists who were involved in the Manhattan Project research contemplated on how to incorporate the project’s plans into various military and civilian fields such as physics, biophysics and nuclear medicine.
One of the initial research efforts that preceded the Manhattan Project was the use of radionucleides in physiological studies to localize radioactive isotopes that would be used in destroying cancerous cells.
These research efforts began in 1923 and they became fully operational in 1943 when the Manhattan Project was fully underway. The Manhattan Project also created a substantial amount of medical research programs that were used in the medical care of project workers that were based in Oak Ridge, Washington and Hanford. These programs were seen to be important as they created the means of reducing the hazardous side effects of radioactive materials (Lenoir & Hays, 2004).
Conclusion
The Manhattan Project has been viewed as the genesis of research and development in the field of scientific technology and atomic energy creation. The various locations that were used during the Manhattan Project were converted into research laboratories and institutions that are now being used for further scientific and technological developments. The creation of the atomic and nuclear bombs heralded the emergence of nuclear energy that could be used in powering huge cities and supporting the energy consumption of civilians.
The project also ensured that there were theoretical breakthroughs in the field of nuclear physics and chemistry that has improved experimentation and research work in the field. The Manhattan Project is therefore an important program in the history of the world because of the technological developments that were invented during the period of the project.
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