Introduction
This research paper is dedicated to children’s behavior modification methods. Behavior modification is a useful psychological technique aimed at dealing with the individual needs of children to integrate them into the working environment successfully. We will begin by reviewing the theoretical foundation and history of behavior modification. Secondly, we are going to define the basic notions of behavior change, Thirdly, we will analyze and compare available methods of influencing children’s behavior.
History of behavior modification
Behavior modification has its roots in what is called “classical conditioning” and “operant conditioning.” I. Pavlov used the former term in his animal research to convey the ability to program (bind) a reflexive response to external stimuli. The latter was proposed by Edward Thorndike in 1905, alongside his “law of effect”, which says: “reinforcement strengthens behavior, whereas punishment weakens it” (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2013).
These ideas were later developed by B.F. Skinner, who established the main theoretical notions of operant conditioning. “In understanding why any organism behaves the way it does, Skinner saw no place for dwelling on a person’s intentions or goals” (Banaji, 2011). He believed that only the events to precede and follow a particular action are of most importance and can be used to modify behavior. This leads us to one of the central concepts developed by Skinner, namely the notion of reinforcement.
Levels of psychological change
Before taking any action, a thorough analysis of environmental factors should be considered. To reach maximum efficacy, a specialist should begin with assessing environmental factors to define an individualized set of actions to be applied in the given context.
Of great importance would also be to list three levels of possible change, according to Kelman (1958, p. 61). They are compliance, identification, and internalization.
The first two levels represent merely superficial changes, where a child is avoiding inappropriate behavior to prevent negative consequences. The third level of change means that the values are now deemed useful by the subject him- or herself. The importance of this concept is not to be underestimated because effects of compliance and identification are highly likely to wear off soon after interaction with the teacher ends.
Behavior modification methods.
There are numerous classifications of behavior modification methods. Some of them list desensitization, aversion therapy, and flooding as methods.
For the sake of simplicity, however, in this paper, we will adhere to the classification, proposed by Richard L. Simpson (1998), which divides behavior modifiers into four types, which are as follows:
- Reinforcement-based interventions
- Extinction-based interventions
- Behavior reduction-based interventions
- Antecedent manipulation strategies
- Now we shall describe each class in particular.
- Reinforcement-based methods
Reinforcement-based methods are divided into two groups: positive reinforcement methods and negative reinforcement methods.
Positive reinforcement implies creating positive consequences of a particular behavior, thus gradually changing it, whereas the removal of negative stimulus underlies negative reinforcement. Most effective positive reinforcement activities include tangible or edible rewards, exchangeable tokens, etc. Children get tokens and then exchange them for a tangible reward. Each successive reward costs more tokens, thus motivating a child to proceed with the behavior.
Extinction-based methods. The notion of an extinction burst
The efficiency of extinction-based methods is debatable (Simpson, 1998, p. 223). In plain words, extinction means, planned and consistent ignoring of all inappropriate behavior, and this is what makes extinction-based methods hard to perform. There is a phenomenon called an extinction burst. During an extinction burst, a child will try to aggravate the conflict in an attempt to regain the reinforcement (Weis, 2008, p. 121). One should keep in mind that any display of attention during an extinction burst will make the undesired behavior even harder to deal with.
Another extinction-based method is called “time out,” which means depriving the child of reinforcement or physical removal of a child from the environment for a certain (usually small) period.
Behavior reduction methods
Behavior reduction methods or punishments imply negative consequences for a child. One must note that any behavior modification program should never be based exclusively on punishment because this is neither appropriate nor effective. (Hersen, 2005, p. 1473)
Before undertaking any behavior reduction, it is strongly advised to get secure permission from parents or supervisors before taking such measures. The drawback of such methods lies in the possible reduction in the overall number of responses, including desired responses. The advantage is that such methods can help when other methods have proven to be ineffective.
According to R. Simpson (1998), the following behavior reduction methods can be distinguished: response cost programs, time-out, overcorrection, differential reinforcement.
Response cost program involves the removal of privileges, tokens, or any other kind of positive reinforcement, as a reaction to a child’s inappropriate behavior.
Overcorrection usually means forcing the subject to restore the previously disrupted environment, thus making it less likely for a child to engage in the unacceptable behavior again. In this paper, we shall not discuss such measures as corporal punishment.
Antecedent strategies rely on manipulations with the environment in a fashion that will cause the appropriate responses to appear more often. They also imply creating strict schedules, routines, and expectations. The most prominent examples of such measures are individualized schedules.
Credibility and peer feedback
Researchers Y. Epstein and C. Borduin (1984, p. 64) have also stressed the importance of credibility between the adult and a child by proposing an idea to prevent inappropriate behavior using other children’s opinions. They claim that the credibility of a leader plays a large role in altering children’s behaviors. From this point of view, an adult teacher is not trusted, since from the perspective of a child, the adult is an inherent critic, and no longer capable of understanding what being a child is like. Such techniques as peer feedback eliminate this problem, thus making it a very efficient means of altering children’s behavior.
Reinforcement–based actions have proven to be the most effective in changing behavior and they certainly should be the starting point in any correction activity. This is also the reason measures such as punishment are ineffective. In our view, response cost programs, etc. only seem to aggravate the relationship, because of the aforementioned child-adult opposition.
One should bear in mind that this is not a comprehensive list of behavior modification methods. There exist many other methods, such as systematic desensitization, proposed by J. Wolpe (Hersen, 2005, p. 620). They are used to help children cope with anxiety issues, for example, fear of going to school, anxiety before taking a test, etc.
We need to stress that dealing with children’s behavior is a multifaceted process that requires careful analysis and consideration, but if used correctly, can be highly effective. We should also mention that all measures as mentioned above are more efficient when used in combination with other methods.
References
Banaji, M. (2011). Reinforcement theory. Harvard gazette. Web.
Epstein, Y., & Borduin, C. M. (1984) The children’s feedback game: an approach for modifying disruptive group behavior. American journal of psychotherapy, 38(1), 63-72.
Hergenhahn, B., & Henley, T. (2013). An introduction to the history of psychology (7th ed.). Wadsworth, USA: Cengage Learning.
Hersen, M. (2005). Encyclopedia of behavior modification and cognitive behavior therapy. Thousand Oaks Calif.: Sage Publications.
Kelman, H. C. (1958) Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change. Journal of Conflict Resolution. 2(1), 51-60.
Simpson, R. (1998). Behavior Modification for Children and Youth with Exceptionalities: Application of Best Practice Methods. Intervention In School And Clinic, 33(4), 219-226.
Weis, R. (2008). Introduction to abnormal child and adolescent psychology. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.