Introduction
Ancient scientific traditions differed from modern science in form and content. In many ways, the prediction methods utilized the casual observations of omens or introduced practices, such as fortune-telling on an animal’s entrails, which were probably performed to impress the public. Ancient scientific traditions also included modern science elements, such as medical diagnosis and prescription of drugs. This paper aims to discuss and compare the role and purpose of prediction methods in Egyptian medicine and Mesopotamian omen divination.
Mesopotamian Systems of Divinatory Interpretation
The important divination disciplines in Mesopotamia included extispicy or divination by entrails of a sacrificed animal and Omen astrology which referred to planetary and lunar phenomena to make predictions regarding a king’s or community’s welfare. The divination had the traits characteristic of religion, magic, science, and scholarship (Koch 2011). It existed on the border between these domains and did not fully belong to any of them. The priests resorted to fortune-telling to answer questions about life, health, and the fate of a person, family, or social group.
Fortune-telling could answer any question, from the future harvest to the ruler’s success in the coming battle. For example, in The Omen Series Šumma Izbu probably used the semantic codes, saying: “If a ewe gives birth to a lion, and it has two necks – the land will have a different ruler, and will follow the stronger one” (Leichty 1970, 74). The Babylonian Planetary Omens is an example of supernatural omens: “If Venus rises in the morning watch and her light is terrifying, there will be a massacre in the land,” or “if Venus at her appearance flickers like fire, there will be a weakness of cattle” (Reiner and Pingree 1998, 41). Likewise, the Weather Omens of Enūma Anu Enlil forecasts: “If in the east and in the west lightning flashes up to seven times, Adad roars, again and again, comes down either once, twice, three, four, five, six or seven times as if he was a servant and if the earthquakes everywhere, a deluge will come” (Gehlken 2012, 133). As can be seen from the above examples, the source of the divinatory information had supernatural or superhuman qualities.
Mesopotamian divination used the interpretation of signs or relied on the oracle’s answers obtained during special rituals. In fortune-telling, a fixed semantic code was used, which was applied depending on the prediction system and utilized social, ethical, and normative biases that formed the cultural context of the community, city, or state (Koch 2011). Mesopotamian divination, including extispicy, planetary, and weather-based predictions, made forecasts based on the nature of the deviations from the norm, such as the color of the rising moon or the direction in which lightning struck during a thunderstorm.
In general, all divination genres used similar approaches to interpretations, associating an ominous phenomenon with the community or its enemy. With the development of the divination system, the classification of interpretations became more complicated. It could depend not only on the binary of good or bad patterns but also on other schemes. Colors (green, red, white, yellow), time (day of the month), spatial divisions (top, middle, bottom), orientation (right, left, or north, south, east, west), and various models of associations, analogies and contrasts allowed the creation of more complex and comprehensive predictions (Koch 2011). Therefore, fortune-telling, which relied on observations of more or less complex and diverse natural or supernatural phenomena, could probably be used depending on the complexity of the issue.
The reliability of the interpretations was guaranteed because the experts in fortune-telling were considered respected members of the community. The divination ritual required special technical skills, and the rules could be pretty complex. Both common groups of divination – extispicy and astrology – were practiced by the two groups of experts (Koch 2011). The seers were the first group who specialized in interpreting the provoked omens like extispicy and lecanomancy, and scribers from the second group interpreted the astrological and other unprovoked omens.
Steps of Mesopotamian Divinations
All the divination types followed a similar procedure that included experiment, interpretation, application, and actualization. The experimental part included the observation or manipulation of a particular phenomenon in specific ways and at a certain time (Koch 2011). Interpretation and application meant applying the divinatory code, looking for omens, and relating this information to the situation in question. The actualization meant that the expert had to decide how the given prediction will affect the questioner.
In astrology, the omens were considered signs sent from the gods, and most predicted the ruler’s fate. Other omens regarded the community affairs like harvest, flood, rain, war, starvation, or locust attacks. The experimental part meant that an expert had to determine the phenomenon as a sign. That is why Neo-Assyrian and Babylonian astrologers observed the sky every night, paying particular attention to the moon and its phases (Koch 2011). Then, the decisions of what phenomenon should be considered an omen were made based on the experts’ knowledge of tradition. The interpretation was made by writing down all relevant omens and counterbalancing signs using unfixed technical terminology. Finally, astrologers actualized the celestial omens, but they rarely advised the questioners to make particular apotropaic or appeasement rituals.
In extispicy, the divine answers were given through the rituals. The experiment stage meant that the expert performed a ceremony and listed the recognized ominous phenomena. Then, an interpretation was given based on the traditional knowledge. During the actualization stage, the diviner could perform the procedure up to 3 times if no omens were found. Therefore, the two main Mesopotamian divinatory disciplines of astrological divinations and extispicy followed a similar format, and the traditional knowledge determined the distinctions.
Egyptian Medicine
In Egyptian medicine, the methods and procedures were much closer to the modern scientific approach than in the Mesopotamian divinatory and predictions primarily based on omens. Sometimes the medical practice included prayer chants, and even spells, although they were not the basis for healing. According to The Papyrus Ebers, Isid was considered a healing goddess, as she alone of the gods and goddesses managed to create a recipe for a headache medicine that cured the god Ra, who tasted the pain relievers offered by the rest of the Egyptian gods and goddesses (Cyril 1974). It was believed that Ra was the initiator of sharing the recipe for a miracle cure with humans and that the gods were patrons of the healing qualities of remedies.
Unlike Mesopotamian divinations that utilized the traditional knowledge, the Egyptian medical practice had a scientific approach and was based on examining the patient and the subsequent diagnosis. According to The Surgical Treatise, which presented methods for determining the severity of traumatic brain injury, the doctor first had to examine the patient, then give opinions on the curability of the disease, and then follow the recommendations for treating the injury, following the instructions presented in the papyrus (Smith, n.d.). This approach is very similar to modern techniques in the healthcare practice.
The Egyptians described the complex processes of body fluids’ functioning, including blood, lymph, and urine. They also perceived diseases as caused by body malfunctions that occurred due to the influence of evil spirits. Therefore, to treat the illness, the doctors should charm the evil spirits out of the body (Cyril, 1974). After that, the healer proceeded to eliminate the evil spirits’ damage using drugs prepared following particular traditional recipes.
In particular, The Papyrus Ebers includes the descriptions of mixtures for headache and constipation. One of the remedies for constipation uses only berries-of-the-Castor-oil-tree. Other recipes are more complex, like adding the particular proportions of figs, sebesten, grapes, caraway, resin-of-acanthus, writing fluid, peppermint, gengent-beans, and sweet beer (Cyril, 1974). In general, Egyptians widely used medicinal plants, sweet beer, milk, honey, and onions as active elements for healing.
The Egyptians were believers and considered the heart to be the concentration of the individual’s will rather than merely a pumping organ. They described heart diseases as the consequence of some nervous and spiritual non-wellness or misbalance of elements. The healers suggested various treatments for the heart and circulatory system, starting from milk and honey and ending with complex remedies using medicinal plants and crudely made mixtures (Cyril, 1974). Noteworthy, the heart was called the center of vessels to limbs. The perceived reason for the illness could be determined as connected with other particular organs or systems, and the remedy was developed respectively.
Egyptians also had a deep understanding of breathing, similar to ancient yoga systems. They considered that in the vessels of the ears, the breath of life goes to the right side, and the breath of death goes to the left side. In general, the chapter describing the heart and circular system includes complex descriptions of heart illness in the context of the whole anatomy. It is evidence of Egyptians’ holistic understanding of the body processes, close to the modern healthcare approaches.
Thus, the role and purpose of prediction methods in Egyptian medicine and Mesopotamian omen divination were discussed and compared. The Mesopotamian omen divination practices were far from scientific and mainly used traditional knowledge to interpret signs and actualize predictions. In contrast, in Egyptian medicine, the doctor’s work was similar to modern healthcare workers’ practice. The Egyptian healers used diagnostic methods and performed treatment following the generally accepted written instructions.
References
Cyril, Bryan. 1974. The Papyrus Ebers. Letchworth: Garden City Press.
Gehlken, Erlend. 2012. Weather Omens of Enūma Anu Enlil. Leiden: Brill.
Koch, Ulla. 2011. “Sheep and Sky: Systems of Divinatory Interpretation.” In Karen Radner and Eleanor Robson, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 447-469.
Leichty, Erle.1970. The Omen Series Šumma Izbu. New York: J.J. Augustine Publisher.
Reiner, Erica, and Pingree, David. 1998. Babylonian Planetary Omens. Groningen: Styx Publication.
Smith, Edwin. n.d. The Surgical Treatise. Chicago Online version.