Modernizing the Tanzania People’s Defense Forces

Introduction

Tanzania is one of the largest and highly populated country in Eastern African. The country is developing, and has less advanced infrastructure and educational system. Consequently, technical courses like aerospace engineering and other aerospace related courses are poorly taught. Being a developing country, Tanzania lacks sufficient financial capability to equip its military sector. For instance, the Airforce Wing requires complex aerospace equipment and well trained personal. The country’s military is core in defending its territory against internal and externals interreferences. Moreover, with a large land mass the country’s need for advanced and modernized defense system is significant. The country’s Airforce Wing plays significant role in protecting its aerospace. Furthermore, the Airforce is in charge of ensuring that no enemy country misuse the country’s airspace. However, lack of modernized equipment encumbers the Airforce Wing’s capability in executing its mandate.

With insufficient military resources and financial capacity, TPDF’s Airforce Wing is subject to various challenges. Therefore, research on the challenges faced by the TPDF’s Airforce Wing will help the stakeholders take significant step in improving the sector’s capability. Improved Airforce Wing performance will lead to a secured Tanzanian Aerospace, and effective military performance in times of wars and any other natural pandemic. Moreover, the research will help the stakeholders develop military performance analysis that is crucial resource allocation. Therefore, this study will focus on the challenges faced by Tanzanian Airforce, and make recommendations on how the stakeholders can take part in improving the sector.

The Airforce military wing plays significant role in defending any particular country. According to Zeigler et al. (2021), the Airforce Wing focus on various defensive areas: aerospace superiority, information superiority, global attacks, and precision engagement.¹ Technological integration in the military operations has helped many countries improve on their military performance. For instance, the use of autopilot and auto-defensive airplanes has saved many lives of militaries. Like any other country, Tanzania can adopt the technology to enhance its military performance. However, technical, human, and financial limitations make it difficult to enhance TPDF’s performance. Although various scholars discuss the importance of technology in the military sector, little is known about the challenges faced by TPDF’s Airforce Wing. Therefore, understanding how Tanzanian military has integrated technology is significant.

This chapter introduces the research’s thematic area by give a brief introduction of Tanzanian Airline history and the TPDF. The researcher will explore existing literature to discuss the history of aerospace navigation in Tanzania. After that, the chapter will introduce the problem statement that led to this study. The statement will explore challenges faced by the TPDF’s Airforce Wing. The research objectives list what the researcher aims to achieve at the end of this study. The objectives are developed from the research’s problem statement. The researcher designed four research questions to help in achieving the research’s objectives. The questions revolve around the TPDF’s Airforce Wing challenges, opportunities available, and what the country can do to overcome the challenges. Moreover, this chapter will explore significance of this study that will justify the research topic. Lastly, the researcher will discuss various limitations of the research.

Historical Background of Tanzanian Airline Industry

The airline sector has a very brief history compared to other industries. The Wright brothers’ powered air flights in 1903 laid the groundwork for personal aviation, even if a certain year cannot be pinpointed as a beginning point for the airline industry as a whole.² German general Count Zeppelin founded an airline six years after this historic flight, making him the first businessman to start an airline. A passenger airline, the Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft (DELAG), was created in Frankfurt on November 16, 1909 to serve the city’s growing population.³

Bieger and Agosti established a four-stage model that encompasses and separates the growth of the airline company.⁴ The first stage, known as the “technical stage,” lasts until the outbreak of World War II, and is referred to as such. Traveling by air was a good option for explorers in the early days. Airlines that turned a profit were hard to come by in this supply-side sector.⁵ When it comes to international legislation, agreements and standards for transportation, stage 2 is known as the political stage. The invention of jet jets in the 1950s was a significant success in technology that allowed the airline industry to begin its enormous rise.

Financial difficulties beset the airline industry since their establishment in the World. Issues related to the modernization of equipment based on the advancing technology proved to be a challenge for most countries especially in East Africa. A situation that no one would have accepted for an established airline in 2002 was the grounding of Swiss Air, a company known for its high level of customer care.⁶ For airlines of whatever age or size, Swiss Air’s grounding underscored the importance of adapting their business model in light of the changing requirements of passengers.

Around the globe, there has been efforts by different countries to modernize their air traffic controls to ensure effective operations especially among the military group. These efforts to upgrade their air-traffic controls systems entailed aspects such as the installation of a semi-automated air-traffic control system in late 1950s and adoption of the air traffic control modernization project in the early 1980s. For instance, in countries such as the United States, NAS equipment and facilities were replaced and upgraded as part of the 1981 modernization effort to match the predicted increase in traffic volume, improve margins of safety in the air, and boost the efficiency of the air traffic-control network. The Advanced Automation System (AAS), which would replace computer hardware and software and controller workstations at tower, terminal, and en-route facilities, was the program’s main focus.

Most nations’ airspace systems had substantial congestion and delays in the early 2000s, with one in every four aircraft being delayed. Air traffic was set to triple by 2025, which generated questions about how well the air-traffic control system could handle this increase in demand. In most nations, the JPDO was established in their constitutions to plan for and organize a transition to NextGen by a predetermined date. They wanted NextGen to enhance NAS and aviation safety, security, efficiency, quality, and affordability, as well as take advantage of new technologies and integrate data streams from multiple sources. They also wanted to accommodate and encourage significant growth in domestic and international transportation.

Air Transport in the Tanzanian Military Context

The current military army in Tanzania was established in 1964 and named the Tanzania People’s Defense Force. Its primary divisions are: Land Force, Navy, and Air force, Reserve Forces Command and the National Service Command. The Air Force command in its nature operates at a higher level of technology due to having sophisticated equipment in comparison with other Commands. One of its components with cross-cutting functions to other Commands is air transportation. In 21st century, Science and Technology has changed faster and has made many countries continue to modernize their Air Transport capabilities to meet the need of existing in Air Force scientific changes. Like other Air Forces, Tanzanian needs to strengthen and procure the latest aviation equipment.

It is well known that in war, victory depends on the mobility of forces and their logistics support. Success depends on the delivery of the means of war, to the right place, at the right time, in the right quantity. Resupply for a wide range of formations and weapons is vital, and time is a decisive factor. In recent times, air transport has proved its ability to provide his mobility and logistic support, regardless of obstacles, both natural and man – made. Although the air transport is experiencing drastic technological advancements, human and financial factors can be limiting to such advancement. The Tanzanian air transport industry is no exemption to the human and financial challenges. Therefore, research on the challenges faced by the air transport industry, in the military context, will help the country’s stakeholders adopt improvement measures.

History of TPDF

The King’s African Rifles (KAR) was a multi-battalion British colonial regiment raised from Britain’s various possessions in East Africa from 1902 until independence in the 1960s. It performed both military and internal security functions within the colonial territories, and served outside these territories during the World Wars. The rank and file (askaris) were drawn from native inhabitants, while most of the officers were seconded from the British Army. When the KAR was first raised there were some Sudanese officers in the battalions raised in Uganda, and native officers were commissioned towards the end of British colonial rule.

With the independence of Tanganyika in December 1961, the two battalions of the King’s African Rifles which had been raised in the colony were transferred to the newly independent nation. These were the 6th (Tanganyika Territory) Battalion (becoming the 1st Tanganyika Rifles) and the 26th (Tanganyika Territory) Battalion (becoming the 2nd Tanganyika Rifles). Despite becoming part of the Tanganyikan military, the bulk of the officers of the regiment were still British, as had been the case in the King’s African Rifles. In January 1964, following the Zanzibar Revolution, the regiment mutinied. The 1st Battalion seized key points in Dar es Salaam on the 19th, deposing their officers and sending them to neighboring Kenya; on the 20th, the 2nd Battalion, in Tabora, joined the mutiny. The entire country’s military had now rebelled, with the British High Commissioner briefly detained and most of the strategic points in the capital held by the mutineers.

After appeals from the President, Julius Nyerere, the United Kingdom dispatched an aircraft carrier, HMS Centaur from Aden, with a force from the garrison there, to stand off Dar es Salaam. On the British government receiving the request in writing from Nyerere, a company of Royal Marines from No. 45 Commando were landed by helicopter in Dar es Salaam on the 25th, assaulting and quickly capturing the barracks holding the 1st Battalion; many of the mutineers quickly surrendered after a guardroom was destroyed by an anti-tank missile. Within twenty-four hours of the initial landings, and a week of the mutiny, the men of the 1st battalion were dismissed and the regiment effectively ceased to exist. The regiment was never reformed. After the union of Tanganyika with Zanzibar later that year, the previously existing army was formally disbanded, and the Tanzania People’s Defense Force was formed in September 1964, firmly under local civilian control.

The United Republic of Tanzania established its air force as the “Air Wing” (Kiswahili: Usafirashaji wa Anga) of the Tanzania People’s Defence Force’s (TPDF) Air Defence Command in 1965. This full autonomous branch, was formulated for the its purpose of supporting the TPDF ground forces and ensure air links between the government and remote areas of the country. During the Uganda–Tanzania War (1978–79) , The Tanzania Air Defence Command participated in defeating the nominally stronger Uganda Army Air Force during the air campaign.

A few of the Tanzanian air wing’s transport remain serviceable. However, its Shenyang F-5s, and Chengdu F-7s are reported to fly only on rare occasions because of airworthiness problems. Tanzania’s long coastline means that transports are also used for patrol flights. In 1980, an order for 10 F-7Bs and two TF-7s was issued to China, and in 1997 also two F-7Ns were purchased from Iran, together with four ex-Iraqi Air Force transports of an unknown type. Today, no Russian-supplied MiG-21s remain in service with the TPDF/AW, and only three or four F-7s remain operational. The TPDF/AW MiG-21MFs are now confirmed to have carried serials – in black or green – underneath the cockpit, but no details about these are known

Recent estimates (2014) suggest that Tanzania’s air force command operates 32 aircraft in three different types. It is believed they are operating 14 fighters, 11 fixed-wing attack aircraft and 7 transport aircraft. The formation of the Tanzania Peoples’ Defense Forces, and in particular the Air Force, which was capable of responding to threats, was mandatory after Independence. This was due to the position of our country to be at the forefront of the liberation of Southern African countries as well as to fund, preserve and train groups of freedom fighters in those countries.

In 1969 the Air Force was officially launched with eight (8) aircraft, four OTTER and four CARRIBOU, this marked the initiation of air transport department as a part of the Air Force. Major changes in Air Defense equipment took place in 1970 when the Commander-in-Chief, and the first President of the United Republic of Tanzania, the late Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere, recognized the need for the Air Force. After the process of finding friendly countries that would enable Tanzania to achieve that goal, the President instructed the Chief of Army Staff, General SAM Sarakikya to send a team of Officers to China and USSR. Following the reports, a group of first 48 pilots were sent to China for pilot training. They all graduated in 1973 and returned to the country. Subsequently, a fleet of 20 F-6 fighter jets from China was delivered and Air Base was established in Ngerengere, Morogoro.

The introduction of the of Air Defense tools into the Tanzania Peoples’ Defence Forces necessitated ion of a command-and-control tool that could integrated and guide Air Forces tools effectively so they could bring about the intended efficiency success. So, in 1974 the Defence Forces Headquarters was established the Chief of Air Defense (CAD) Branch, which was responsible for overseeing and coordinating military operations and training for all Air Forces Staff.

After the Kagera War (1978/79), most of the Air Transport planes faced modernization and maintenance challenges. This pushed the TPDF to introduce to its Air Transport fleet Chinese Y-12 and Y-8 aicrafts. However, due to the great advances in science, technology and modern concept of warfare, it is important to modernize the Air transport equipment and tools if the Airforce is to be able to operate efficiently and compete in the Air Transportation Industry.

Although TPDF has evolved throughout its history, it is still subject to various challenges. Being the most intricate sector in the government, the country has ensured that its soldiers receive professional training to for effective aerospace navigation. Moreover, the country has been purchasing modernised military equipment. However, the Tanzanian educational sector does not offer sufficient technical knowledge for the operation of complex military equipment.⁷ Moreover, being a growing economy, the country cannot afford complex airspace equipment as used in the developed countries. Therefore, insufficient human resource skills and less developed military equipment limit military performance despite its rich history.

Statement of the Problem

Air transport in Tanzania covers about 945,234sq. kilometers which is a large area under coverage and therefore there has been a need to modernize its equipment to enable effective results. Whereas road transport in the TPDF has proved to be of significance, the basis of air transport serves as a runaway that can help to boost security within the nation. However, in the recent past, challenges related to purchasing of equipment and upgrading them to the latest versions has been a greater challenge.

Despite all policy and institutional measures taken by the government to modernize the TPDF with the intention of improving the force performance, technological, human and financial challenges have persistently remained and there seems to be no clear-cut answers to this disappointing state of affairs. For instance, the government has improved the recruitment process that ensures the militaries have skills and knowledge in air transport. Moreover, the Airforce Wing has been a great beneficiary of regional and global military trainings offered by global organizations like United Nations.⁸ Previous studies have largely focused on government investments in terms of research, training and development, the importance of defence industries and the formulation of policies and laws governing entire modernization process without paying attention to modernization challenges and the manner in which they hamper the TPDF’s performance. This study seeks to fill that knowledge gap.

Research Objectives

The research objective generally aimed at evaluating the challenges and road map for modernization of equipment for air transport in Tanzania People’s Defense Forces and Tanzania in general.

Specific Objectives

1. To investigate the technological, human, and financial challenges of modernizing the Air Force Wing
2. To examine the available opportunities that can be effectively used to enhance the Airforce wing performance
3. To recommend measures that can be adopted to enhance Airforce Wing performance

Research Questions

1. What are the human, technical, and financial challenges facing TPDF’s Airforce Wing?
2. What are the existing opportunities available to the country for enhancement of TPDF’s Airforce Wing performance?
3. How are the Airforce military personal equipped to ensure effective performance in the sector?
4. What are the measures that TPDF’s Airforce Wing can adopt to overcome the overarching challenges?

Significance of the Study

Findings derived from this study are significant as they are expected to contribute immensely to different personnel within the TPDF particularly on realizing specific challenges and opportunities in Tanzania. The findings will provide information of how to handle the challenge of modernization of air transport in TPDF. Also, the study will provide useful information to specific personnel such as policy makers and the government on what has to be done in order to realize effective results on the issue of modernization of air transport in the TPDF and Tanzania government in general.

Limitations of the Study

Time constraints limited the scope of our investigation. Instead of six months, it was completed in four months, rather than the six months that had been planned for. Researchers should employ a bigger sample size in their research, which is an important pre-requisite for reliable research that aims at generalizing findings and generating conclusions about the population of study. A number of TPDF officers from Dar es Salaam were interviewed, but the research was unable to interview all of the groups in other stations.

Delimitation

Because this study depends on secondary data sources, it has a number of limitations. Accordingly, data collection is based mostly on open-source information such as academic publications and reports. It is possible to circumvent the limits imposed by outdated or untrustworthy data by consulting a variety of current and dependable sources of information. Physical visits and phone calls were necessary to keep tabs on the surveys and ensure that they were filled out to the fullest extent possible, in response to the restrictions outlined above.

Participants were drawn in by the surveys since they were brief and to the point, and this made it easy for them to complete them. Because of a lack of resources and time, the research was compelled to focus the investigation on only Dar-es-Salaam. Although the findings were specific to one TPDF site, they were extrapolated to all sites in Tanzania. Participants were extensively educated on the study’s purpose and implications for their participation by the abilities, experience, and theoretical orientation in research methodologies

To better understand the problems related to modernization of air transportation equipment in the TPDF, this section examines both theoretical and empirical research. It begins with a brief history of Tanzania’s air transportation business, followed by an in-depth examination of the country’s current difficulties and future goals. A review of relevant literature on the TPDF’s modernization difficulties, prospects, and solutions will follow thereafter. This literature review will focus on the previous studies on the technological integration in air transport, and subsequent application on the military operations. To better understand the topic, the researcher will review the challenges facing the air transport industry in Tanzania.

The three challenges to be identified in this review are financial constraints, human resource limitations, and inadequate technological equipment within the TPDF’s Airforce Wing. The literature review will explore theoretical and empirical studies on the overarching research theme. The theoretical literature review will explore the history and scope of air transport in Tanzania. Moreover, the review will explore modernization of aircraft in the world. Furthermore, this chapter will explore challenges faced with the aircraft industry in Tanzania. Although the existing literature offer sufficient knowledge on aircraft modernization and challenges faced by the industry, the literature insufficiently explores aircraft modernization challenges faced by the TPDF’s Airforce Wing. Therefore, this study will help fill the existing gap in the literature.

Theoretical Literature Review

As the aviation industry grows, so does the demand on accessible airspace, necessitating a greater emphasis on making the most of what is already there. Point-to-point and direct flights are predicted to grow in popularity due to the expansion of scheduled and general aviation aircraft. In addition, the rising cost of fuel is a serious issue for the whole aviation industry. Flight delays, cancellations, choke spots, inefficient operations, might rise as the air transportation system becomes more complicated, especially when unpredictable weather and other circumstances limit airport capacity, as is the case now. The cost of operations will continue to rise unless there are modernization in equipment efficiency and labor productivity. In the short term, air transportation equipment modernization must take advantage of present and emerging capabilities while also laying the groundwork for meeting the stakeholder community’s future demands. The use of PBN principles can help ease some of these problems by increasing the efficiency of airspace and processes.

Air Transport in Tanzania

According to the IATA Annual Report of 2011, it is estimated that the Tanzanian aviation sector generated USD 18 billion in 2010.⁹ A decade of ups and downs has left the sector more resilient and effective than ever. Passenger yields climbed by 6.1% despite the fact that the capacity was raised by 5.2 percent. Growth in Tanzania’s economy has led to increasing international and domestic air traffic as a consequence of improving market conditions in key aviation markets.

According to the International Air Transport Association’s annual report, Tanzania’s overall passenger traffic climbed by 9.9 percent from 2,754,355 in 2009 to 3,027,512 passengers in 2010. From 2009 to 2010, the number of aircraft movements grew by 8.1% from 167,610 to 181,240. As nations recover from the global financial crisis, their success has been linked to a better global economy.

The IATA’s 2011 Annual Report similarly shows that, international aviation traffic increased by 22.6% in 2010 after declining by 8.6% in 2009.¹⁰ In 2010, there were 28,941 aircraft movements, up from 23,611 in 2009. From 15,611 scheduled movements in 2009 to 21,316 scheduled movements in 2010, there was a 36.1% increase in scheduled movements. In 2010, the number of foreign passengers transported grew by 9.7 percent from 1,262,216 to 1,384,855. International airports had a rise of 5.8% in aircraft movements in 2010, while domestic airports saw an increase of 7.0% in 2009. In 2010, the number of transactions handled increased from 143,999 to 152,299, a 17% increase. According to IATA’s 2011 Annual Report, domestic passenger traffic grew by 10.1% from 1,492,139 to 1,642,657 passengers between 2009 and 2010.

ITC’s 2012 annual report states that Precision Air Services is the only national carrier of the United Republic of Tanzania, having satisfied all of the International Civil Aviation Organization’s standards for a National Carrier (ICAO).¹¹ Prior to Precision Air Services Limited entering service in March 2011, there were no other Tanzanian carriers operating regular international and local flights while also maintaining the country’s most extensive domestic network. Additionally, Precision Air Services Limited was the sole recognized airline industry standard for operational safety as of March 2011 under IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA). There was just one Tanzanian airline in the IATA clearing house in March 2011: Precision Air.¹² IATA membership allows Precision Air to collaborate and work with the world’s largest international carriers, allowing them to lift Precision Air customers on their flights and vice versa.

Aircraft Equipment Modernization in the World

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, it is estimated that in 1998, the direct contribution of civil aviation (including airlines, commercial air transport operations, and their affiliates) amounted to US$ 370 billion. Even in wealthy countries like the United States, where air travel is a major component of both military and personal life, civil aviation contributes significantly to the GDP. A rising tide lifts all boats as air travel becomes more accessible to those living in underdeveloped countries. Aviation is a key component of the world’s infrastructure, according to Park 1.657 billion people-or almost a quarter of the world’s population-and 34.5 million tons of freight were transported by the world’s 896 scheduled airlines in 2003.¹³ Almost 40% of the world’s manufactured exports and over half of the more than 714 million international tourists were carried by the industry. Since it is predicted that freight transportation would account for as much as 80% by value in the globe by 2014, it is likely to grow in prominence.

According to Park, investments in the renovation and extension of high-quality aviation equipment must be made over a lengthy period of time to support the expected modernization plan.¹⁴ For example, it is anticipated that from 2015 to 2030, the world would need to invest USD 1.8 trillion on airport modernization and equipment upgrade With about 73.74% in modernization scheme to satisfy future demand, reduce travel time, and increase service predictability and dependability, investment in aviation infrastructure is set to realize its full exploit. Modernization in air transport equipment promotes public trust that flying is safe, secure and ecologically responsible.

According to Park, most of the aviation sector’s infrastructure expenditures (runways, airport terminals, and air traffic control) have been paid for by the business itself rather than being subsidized by taxation or public investment by their respective government.¹⁵ In addition to user fees and other income sources, infrastructure expenditures have been paid for by the air transport business itself. As a result, airlines and their customers are expected to contribute USD 136 billion in tax collections in 2018, which is around 45 percent of the industry’s gross domestic product (firm-level equivalent to GDP).

According to Estache (2014), the airline sector has had declining income returns (the sector’s equivalent of pricing) but also growing overall revenues for much of the previous 30 years, signifying a higher volume in terms of customer journeys and freight handled.¹⁶ As a result of substantial deregulation and the introduction of a large number of new companies, the industry was able to increase its overall revenues by 28% in the decade leading up to 2003. Passenger kilometers climbed by 4.3% and freight ton-kilometers by 6.5% between 1991 and 2002, respectively, for the scheduled airlines’ traffic.

Challenges For Modernization of Equipment for Air Transport in Tanzania

Published reports from June 2013 revealed that TPDF had significant financial issues, in part due to losses that were experienced when performing military flights.¹⁷ The study further indicated that TPDF has for a long time been faced with a crisis in the modernization of their equipment due to lack of enough funding from the government. In August 2013, a Tanzanian publication stated that the TPDF s “desperately” needed a $32 million rescue package from the Tanzanian government or other non-shareholder sources from Tanzania for them to fully upgrade their military aircraft equipment.

According to an unpublished World Bank report, the absence of airports in potential destinations, including those stated above, is a major obstacle to the expansion of domestic air transportation.¹⁸ With the inability to expand the air transport sector, it follows that there has been no need to modernize the equipment being used thus pausing a challenge. Tourists flock to western Tanzania’s Tabora and Kigoma districts for its historical landmarks and the region’s chimpanzees, but there is no air transportation available. This has resulted to the existing challenges in the modernization of the air transport equipment.

The unpublished report prepared for the World Bank further showed that military personnel in the organization receive less finance from the government, which results in poor performance in their modernization scheme, which in turn results in challenges.¹⁹ Due to little revenue, the airline does not perform frequent repair or modernization, as the study’s findings demonstrate. The culture and mentality of the military personnel towards their equipment has resulted in poor performance as most of them cannot make good use of the old air transport equipment thus resulting in poor service delivery.

Following the conclusions of Park (2014), the air transport industry in Africa suffers from a lack of funds for servicing and modernization of equipment issues.²⁰ As a result, many Africans countries have financial issues because they lack the cultural mindset to see security as a necessity for growth, but instead see it as an obvious thing. The theoretical literature analysis also supports the published report by Estache, which states that Tanzania people Defense Force faced significant financial issues as a result of losses suffered while operating flights to and from their military based to areas of execution of their activities.²¹

According to Aviation Safety Network, as of September 2014, the air transport sector had experienced incidents or accidents that were linked to poor modernization plans in the air transport equipment as follows:

• On the 26th of July, 1999, a Let L-410UVP-E9 with the tail number 5H-PAB performed a belly landing at Arusha Airport while practicing touch and go. Two members of the flight crew and three passengers were not hurt however. This accident was linked to a faulty aircraft engine due to lack of modernization.
• On 16^th November 2004, during a training flight at Kilimanjaro Airport, a Let L-410UVP-E20, with the tail number 5H-PAC, crashed and burst into flames. Facial injuries occurred to the two pilots who had not put on their shoulder belts. This incident was associated with lack of modernization on the propellers and the aircraft engine.²²
• On 8 July 2007, at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport’s runway 06, an ATR 72-212, tail number 5H-PAR, experienced a runway excursion. To the right of Taxiway F it deviated and ended up in the ditch. This accident was linked to the Nose-wheel failure due to lack of modernization and upgrading of the part. However, no one on board, including the four members of the crew and the 62 passengers, was hurt. The damage to the plane was significant. Reverse thrust applied on landing may have resulted in this incident. The levers of power were stuck in a single place.²³
• On 10 July 2014, an ATR 72-500, with the tail number 5H-PWA, was flying from Mwanza to Dar es Salaam when the number 2 engine spat out. As a result, a flight to Kilimanjaro International Airport was required. However, after selecting ground idle, the aircraft swerved to the left and exited runway 09, hitting one of runway edge lights, before rolling over the grass field parallel to runway 09 for 180 meters before reclaiming the runway, as explained by the captain. However, there were no reports of any injuries. The accident was later cited to fault in number 2 engine of the aircraft which was yet to be modernized.²⁴

According to Michael, TPDF’s air transport sector faces an uncertain future after an audit indicated that the airline’s liabilities currently surpassed its assets by TZS83.14billion (USD53million).²⁵ The first large-scale military air Transport in Tanzania was recently obliged to ask the government for a USD32 million bailout after reporting losses of USD18 million for its most recent financial year.

Empirical Studies

This section is dealing with identifying the research gaps deduced from challenges and road map for air transport equipment modernization for Tanzania People Defense Force. Tretheway conducted research and found that there are several problems that must be overcome in order to modernize air transport equipment in the United States.²⁶ Expatriates and tourists to other countries avoid flying because of the high number of mishaps, incidents, delays, and cancellations in the industry resulting from faulty equipment that have not been upgraded. In modern industrialized countries, citizens are warned against travelling on particular airlines or within specific countries. Some corporations and organizations even prohibit their staff from flying on certain airlines. This is because, such airlines have been facing many challenges that have hindered their ability to modernize their air transport equipment thus pausing greater chances of accidents and delays.

However, because this study is based on data from a first-world nation that is also a global economic superpower, it cannot be compared to the Tanzanian case. This is due to the fact that first-world nations are more developed and have established norms, whereas our underdeveloped countries do not. According to Robin, a Nigerian researcher, there is a paucity of airline services in Africa. Researchers wanted to know if a lack of airplane service was preventing Africa from reaching the industrialized state and having a well modernized air transport sector.²⁷ An office sample of 409 Nigerian National Aviation Offices employees was used for the study. A lack of dependable air transportation can significantly limit access to a developing country, according to new research. Confidence in the national government and local businesses might be further eroded by this. The survey found that investors and visitors will go elsewhere. Because of this, both nations’ economy are doomed for the time being. In the future, the gap between industrialized and developing countries will widen.

According to Charles of India, the passenger traffic transported by scheduled domestic flights during January-July 2021 increased by 1.74 percent over the same year in 2011, but the sector nevertheless suffered huge losses.²⁸ The research further indicated that such negativity was much associated with the use of faulty equipment in the air transport sector and a consequent lack of skilled personnel in the filed of upgradation and modernization. The following are only a few of the various reasons for these losses: When it comes to running an airline, ATF is a huge expense. Fuel expenditures account for roughly 45 percent of overall operating costs for Indian operators, compared to 34 percent for the majority of operators elsewhere in the globe. This is mostly due to state governments around the country charging exorbitant amounts of tax on ATF. ATF is taxed at rates ranging from 25% to 30% depending on where you live. It was also prohibited until very recently to bring directly imported ATF into the United States. With such high expenses to be incurred, India had resolved to the use of traditional air transport equipment rather than carrying out an upgradation scheme.

Additionally, service tax was shown to be a challenge by Charles in his research. He contended that Indian aviation tickets are subject to a 12.36 percent service tax.²⁹ Third-party services like ticketing, aircraft maintenance, and ground handling, all of which are subject to service tax, are widely used by aviation sector participants, putting Indian operators at a disadvantage in the face of fierce competition. This service tax on plane tickets and on the services acquired by Indian airline operators adds even more to the costs of running an airline in the country limiting possible plans on modernization and upgradation of equipment. However, because this study is based on data from a first-world nation (India) that is also a global economic superpower, it cannot be compared to the Tanzanian case. This is due to the fact that first-world nations are more developed and have established norms, whereas our underdeveloped countries do not.

According to research by Andrew in Egypt, there are some services or obstacles that no airline can avoid.³⁰ The Egyptian railway system is putting up a stiff fight against air travel thus limiting efforts by air transport investors to upgrade their equipment. Many measures were taken to improve the country’s train service in response to the entrance of low-cost air carriers. Many new trains have been introduced with enhanced service quality, providing customers an excellent alternative to flying. However, overall air passenger traffic is increasing, but this has had a detrimental impact on traffic. Therefore, many air transport service providers are forced to focus on the use of “traditional” equipment rather than upgrading them to their modern form due to lack of funding.

The survey also found that technical improvements in the sector of telecommunication had essentially eliminated the necessity for equipment modernization. To save time and money, corporations are increasingly relying on communication technologies like video conferencing. As a result, aviation passenger traffic has been significantly impacted by virtual communication capabilities, particularly in foreign flights.

According to research by Peter, there is fierce rivalry in the aviation business that leaves companies powerless.³¹ Botswana airlines are forced to lower tickets to compete for market share because of high operational expenses and a price-conscious customer base. This situation has a significant impact on the modernization plans as companies cannot easily raise the required funds to upgrade their air transport equipment. The airline sector has entered into a pricing war as a result of its proclivity for luring customers in with appealing discounts and inexpensive rates.

According to research by Chen in the Democratic Republic of Congo, airline operators and the economy suffer greatly from aircraft delays associated with the use of faulty “traditional” equipment.³² Delays cost money, time, and missed demand since they dissuade many flying travelers. Due to the importance of air travel in connecting people with their workplaces, delays in flights have a ripple effect across the economy.

Synthesis of Literature Gap

According to the literature examined, many challenges have been studied in connection to lack of modernity in air transport equipment in both government-owned and privately-owned airlines. This has also been investigated in the context of both developed and developing nations. However, in the case of TPDF, there has been no research that has discovered the challenges and the road map for equipment modernization. An additional area of research that has not yet been addressed is that of studies that were undertaken in the past.

There has been an inevitability to performing research on modernizing equipment based on time, technology, and globalization in recent years, such as Peter’s 2015 study.³³ Poor advancement in technology and slow growth in modernization has also been associated with the challenges in the modernization of equipment both in TPDF and Tanzania as a country. A further study gap can be discovered by looking at studies done in industrialized nations, such as those in the United States. After the research is completed, we hope to fill in the huge information gap by evaluating the challenges and road map for equipment modernization faced by TPDF.

Analysis of the Literature Review (SWOT)

The existing literature on the research topic presents various strengths that are integral for the study topic. The literature provides sufficient information on the history of air transport in Tanzania and air transport modernization across the world. Moreover, reviewed literature applies reliable and valid data that is persuasive for the study area. Therefore, the researcher can adopt the data utilised in some of the existing literature to build up on his argument. Moreover, the literature explores various limitations including data collection that could have led to data inaccuracy. Consequently, the researcher could to avoid inaccurate data from the reviewed literature.

Weaknesses

Although the reviewed literature provided crucial information for research topic, it eliminated some information that was crucial to the researcher. For instance, the research by Zhang and Yuen (2018), discussed various challenges that are beyond avoidance in the aerospace navigation. However, the study fails to give possible mechanisms that can help reduce the impacts of the unavoidable challenges.³⁴ Moreover, the existing research focus on the global aircraft industry modernization failing to explore the thematic research area in Tanzania. Consequently, the existing research provides insufficient information on the challenges facing the aircraft industry in Tanzania specifically in Military utilization.

Opportunities

The existing weaknesses in the reviewed literature presents an opportunity to the researcher to build on the thematic area. The literature limitation in studying challenges faced by air transport within the military sector, makes this study worth pursuing. Moreover, this study aims at proposing measures that TPDF’s Airforce Wing can adopt making the it more significant than the existing literature. Therefore, insufficient research and overgeneralization of the research topic in the existing literature is an opportunity for this study to become persuasive in academia and military contexts.

Threats

Although the existing literature provide sufficient information on history and modernization of the airspace transport, the literature is subject to bias. Moreover, the airspace technology is dynamic experiencing new developments every day. Therefore, the literature fails to explore the latest adopted technology. Consequently, using the information from existing literature may fail to address actual problems faced by the Airforce Wing. Lack of updated information on airspace technology may threaten this study by rendering it inapplicable to the existing challenges facing the TPDF’s Airforce Wing.

This section discussed in detail the methods used to conduct the study. These methods are organized under the following sub-sections which entail research design, data collection and analysis, research instruments, sampling techniques, the population and the area of study

Area of Study

It is critical that the research explicitly explains the study of topic and define the research area throughout the planning stage.³⁵ This research was carried out in Dar Es Salaam at TPDF offices. The financial and time limits purposely led the study’s execution in Dar Es-Salaam. TPDF Dar Es-Salaam area was selected based on the areas indicators of challenges associated with modernization of air transport equipment.

Research Design

Data collection, organization and analysis are all aspects of research design that are examined in this study in order to maximize its usefulness.³⁶ It was decided to employ a case study in this study since it allowed for an accurate picture of individuals, events, and situations.³⁷ The research was carried out using a case study approach. It is a method for gathering and analyzing data within an organization. Data gathering methods might be tailored to the study’s needs under this approach. This design was significant since it allowed for a more in-depth investigation of the issue at hand.

This study used the mixed methodologies using a combination of quantitative and qualitative data gathering and analysis approaches.³⁸ Rather of isolating the quantitative and qualitative methodologies, it was preferable to exploit their compatibility for complimentary and integrative objectives.³⁹ Since quantitative approaches rely on science to provide their “objectivity,” this adds to science’s overall quality of things.⁴⁰ This allowed for in-depth analysis and evaluation of the challenge and road map for air transport equipment in Tanzania (TPDF).

Study Population

A population is defined by Hutchison as a collection of people who share at least one trait of interest to the researcher.⁴¹ The sample is taken from a broader group of people. TPDF officers were included in the study’s population, which was estimated at 1567 in January of 2022.

Sample Design

When conducting research, a sample is a group of people from which information may be drawn and conclusions can be drawn.⁴² Sample size should be determined by taking into account the availability of the population, sampling procedures, and financial resources necessary to facilitate a particular study.⁴³ A total of 100 TPDF officers from various departments were included in this study’s sample. This included approximately 15 employees from each department of information system, flight operation, quality and safety, human resource and training,Special Flight and engineering in the TPDF Dar es Salaam.

Because the number of TPDF personel is limited to about 2456, the sample size was chosen to be representative of that population. With little resources and a short deadline, it was easy to handle the sample size. Table 3.1 shows the composition of the test sample. A representative sample of 100 employees was expected.

Table 3.1: Summary of the Sample Composition for the Study Respondents

Sample and Sampling Procedures

Sampling is the process of picking a subset of the population such that the subset can be utilized to draw conclusions about the population as a whole.⁴⁴ Additionally, Kothari indicates that sampling allows for the generalization of the data obtained to an enormous population.⁴⁵ Non-probability and probability sampling methods were employed to choose employees. Random sampling and purposive sampling are the examples of this type of sampling that were utilized.

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a form of selective sampling that refers to the practice of ensuring that each member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen.⁴⁶ Respondents from various departments and units were selected using a simple random sample. As a result, a random number table was utilized to choose responses from a list of all of the departments’ employees.

Purposive Sampling

The researcher chooses the sample items or respondents based on the data she or he hopes to obtain from them using this sampling process.⁴⁷ The departments were selected by the use of stratified random sampling. The purpose of this was to assist the researcher in determining which departments would be most suitable for doing the study in terms of time and ease of study. That is why a list of every department was supplied, and the researcher picked the most convenient for his or her study.

Research Instruments

It is possible to cross-validate information and data from a range of sources by employing more than one approach, according to Afolayan.⁴⁸ In order to obtain as much data as possible, the researcher employed a triangulation strategy that relies on information from several sources. As a result, a variety of methods, including document analysis, interviews, questionnaires, and direct observation, were employed.

Documentary Review

This entails looking through previously published materials on the subject under investigation. By comparing and enhancing evidence from other sources, the papers can provide a deeper understanding of the program being researched. An annual performance report, strategy plan, and reports on human resources, as well as service plans and human resource policies in the TPDF, were all examined as part of this research.

Interviews

Interviewing is a method of gathering information in which participants are interrogated orally, either one at a time or in groups. In particular, this approach was utilized to explain complex concepts to lower-level staff who required a little help understanding the jargon.

Questionnaire

Researchers may use this to collect data from a huge number of people. Even though some TPDF officers may have had difficulty scheduling an interview because of their hectic work schedules, the use of a questionnaire was a logical choice. As an added benefit, the use of questionnaires helped preserve participant privacy and minimized interview bias.The use of questionnaire was significant as it allowed the researcher to collect data from the respondents in a logical manner.

Observation includes research methods that involve systematically observing and documenting the behavior of living things, objects, or occurrences. It was employed in this study to observe staff’ reactions to consumers as well as their physical working environment. This method of data collection proved to be economical as it allowed to save on the cost of the research.

Data Collection Method

The study drew on both primary and secondary sources for its findings. There was a specified set of questions and a predetermined technique of recording in the main data, which was a structured interview. A questionnaire was also used because some of the officers’ did not have enough time to participate in an interview. Accordingly, the study relied mostly on reports, profiles, and journals from TPDF’s headquarters and many other publications that offered material to assist the research.

Data Analysis and Presentation

Rather than a quantitative technique, this study employed a qualitative inductive approach to examine the effects of fund control strategy on Tanzania’s efficacy of fund regulation. In thematic analysis, only the most important aspects and case are recognized. SPSS Statistical Programs for Social Science) was also used to provide data on the frequency and totals. Statistical charts and graphs such as bar graphs and tables were used to portray the data.

Reliability and Validity Tests

Reliability is a measure of the consistency of test finding.⁴⁹ Cronbach’s alpha was used to check the data’s internal consistency and make sure it was reliable. We used a 0.7 Cronbach’s alpha (ά) test cutoff, which Surucu describes as an appropriate test scale.

Validity Test

A study’s validity, according to Saunders (2018), may be determined by looking at whether or not the findings actually pertain to what they purport to.⁵⁰ An evaluation of the test’s ability to assess what it is aimed at measuring. A pilot study of 10 respondents from TPDF was done to ensure the validity of the data gathering device. In order to improve the questionnaire, the responses of the respondents were included into the design

Study Findings, Analysis and Discussion

The purpose of this chapter is to present, analyze, and debate the results of the research on challenges and a road map for the modernization of air transport equipment in the TPDF. For specific study aims, the findings are explained in detail. As a starting point, we will discuss the findings pertaining to the respondent’s profile.

Presentation of findings on respondents’ profile

This section of the paper aims at describing the respondents’ personality traits to help understand how knowledgeable they are about the topic at hand. Age, education level, length of time in the military and air transport business, department, and function of the respondent are some of the characteristics of the surveyed respondents that have been discussed.

Age of the Respondents

According to Table 3.1, there were a total of 100 TPDF military personnel who participated in the research. Following is a breakdown of the respondents’ ages, as seen in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Age of Respondents

Table 4.1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respondents for the study. It is clear that the majority of them are energetic and youthful, indicating that they are likely to move about a lot in search of a good job that would allow them to live a good life. If they are fully exploited, this age group is the perfect age group to enhance the Defense of the country because of their energetic, ambitious and innovative nature. Simply utilize them as a means for TPDF to improve the performance, and consider them an excellent opportunity. If they are not well-managed, many young people who recently graduated from college are inclined to put their own personal aims and desires ahead of those of the country. When it comes to the performance of an organization and its employees, Paais asserted that a company’s success or failure is directly related to its ability to manage its young generation.⁵¹

Results from table 4.1 shows that 50% of the overall workforce was between the ages of 20 and 29, while 30% were between the ages of 30 and 39. In addition, 10 (10 percent) employees (TPDF personnel) were between the ages of 40 and 49, and 10 (10 percent) were beyond the age of 50.

Findings from this research let us gain a clearer view of the difficulties and road map for the upgrading of transportation equipment in the TPDF. Retaining youthful and enthusiastic staff has always been a good thing and a bad thing, depending on the circumstances. Paais supports these claims. Young employees, he says, are looking for a better quality of life.⁵² To keep these personnel, employers need to pay them a competitive compensation, because they are seen to be highly productive and successful workers. Employee mobility and turnover have long been a major factor in their motivations and goals.

Educational Level

Survey respondents were asked to provide a rough estimate of their education level. The results are shown in the following table (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 shows that 60% of the workforce had a bachelor’s degree, while 20% had a diploma and a further 20% (20%) had a master’s degree. This means that a large percentage of those who took part in the survey are well-educated and, as a result, are familiar with the vast majority of the ideas covered in the survey. As a result, questionnaires have been a primary data gathering method in thestudy.

According to the data shown above, the majority of those surveyed were well-educated, and as a result, their views on the challenges and road map for the TPDF equipment modernization in the aviation sector were mixed. In addition, the level of education of the personnel assured the quality and dependability of the information provided. Unless culture and conventions take precedence, Mubarok agrees with the preceding results in that the greater a respondent’s educational attainment, the more likely it is that the information he or she provides will be accurate and relevant to the questions addressed.⁵³

Working Experience

In order to assess Tanzania’s aviation industry’s possible prospects and problems, it is critical to have prior work experience. As shown in Figure 4.2, research on working experiences indicates the following:

Approximately 40% of the participants in this research had worked for less than three years. A total of 40 people (or 40%) had been employed for at least six years. Finally, there were 10 employees with less than a year of experience who were categorized as “freshers” for their lack of experience.

According to this study, the majority of respondents have worked in the airforce for a long enough period of time to have a favorable or negative outlook on the TPDF chances and difficulties. As a result of these results, 10 percent of the workforce has less than a year’s worth of experience, indicating that there is room for growth in terms of hiring new personnel. Employee turnover and mobility are prevalent in privately owned businesses, according to Vinod.⁵⁴ It does, however, point to certain possible issues and difficulties that employees may face. Research found that it is prevalent but should not be at a tremendous quantity.

Roles of Respondents

Participants were asked to identify their positions at TPDF. Figure 4.3 depicts the findings in this regard.

Source: Field Data (2022)

A total of 30 (30%) personnel were classified as military personnel, while another 30 (30%) were supervisors, as shown in figure 4.3. Additionally, 20 percent of the workforce was made up of staff officers, 10 percent of whom were department heads, and the other 10 percent were section leaders. The results shown here show that the study was representative because it included military personnel from all the Airforce Wing departments. As shown in Figure 4.4, the challenges and road map revealed in the research were legitimate and reliable since the military personell were identified from all departments.

Department

The research participants were asked to identify their department. Figure 4.4 reveals the answer to this question.

The engineering department had 10 workers (10%), while the Special Flight department had 10 people (10%), according to the study’s findings. In addition, 10 percent of the ground staff, 10 percent of the flight crew, and 10 percent of the information system staff worked on the trip. Additionally, 10 (10 percent) personnel from the legal department, 10 (10 percent) from the finance department, and 10 (10 percent) from the internal audit department were included in the research. In addition, ten percent of the human resources and training staff was participating, as were ten percent of the quality and safety staff as well. It is clear from these findings that all of the departments, particularly those in TPDF, were included in the research. As a consequence, the findings of this study were accurate and dependable since they included the challenges and road map for modernization of air transport equipment from all areas.

According to Sterne, research is regarded genuine and credible if it is free of biases. He makes the same reasoning as the previous author.⁵⁵ Furthermore, when the study encompasses a wide range of departments, each department has its own unique challenges and opportunities, as well as a unique perspective.

Findings, Analysis and Discussion as per study Objectives

The findings, analysis, and discussion are provided in light of the objectives of the study, which were outlined in chapter one.

Challenges for Modernization of Equipment for Air Transport in TPDF

Based on the first objective that has been presented in chapter one, which states that “to find the challenges for Modernization of Equipment for Air Transport in TPDF”, this sub heading aims at discussing these challenges and present them in form of tables and figures of financial difficulties, poor infrastructure, lack of skilled personnel to carry out modernization scheme and maintenance cost.

Financial Difficulties

TPDF military personnel in the commercial, internal audit, and human resource were also questioned if budgetary issues were one of the obstacles to the upgrading of military air transportation equipment. Figure 4.6 displays the results of the study on financial challenges.

The findings in figure 4.3 show that some 60(60 percent) of those surveyed strongly agreed that the government was experiencing financial difficulties in disbursing funds for modernizing the air transport equipment, while 40(40 percent) agreed. A total of 100 (100%) of the military personnel agreed that the department was in financial trouble resulting in poor strategies in upgrading their equipment. Due to little revenue, the TPDF does not perform frequent repair or modernization, as the study’s findings demonstrate. The culture and mentality of the military personnel towards their equipment has resulted in poor performance as most of them cannot make good use of the old air transport equipment thus resulting in poor service delivery. Therefore, insufficient funding from the government is one of the challenges facing Tanzanian Airforce Wing. The fiscal constraint has led to increased use of old equipment encumbering efficient service delivery.

Following the conclusions of Park, the air transport industry in Africa suffers from a lack of funds for servicing and modernization of equipment issues.⁵⁶ As a result, many Africans countries have financial issues because they lack the cultural mindset to see security as a necessity for growth, but instead see it as an obvious thing. The theoretical literature analysis also supports the published report by Matimati, which states that Tanzania people Defense Force faced significant financial issues as a result of losses suffered while operating flights to and from their military based to areas of execution of their activities.⁵⁷

The unpublished report prepared for the World Bank further showed that military personnel receive less finance from the government, which results in poor performance in their modernization scheme, which in turn results in challenges.⁵⁸ Due to little revenue, the TPDF does not perform frequent repair or modernization, as the study’s findings demonstrate. The culture and mentality of the military personnel towards their equipment has resulted in poor performance as most of them cannot make good use of the old air transport equipment thus resulting in poor service.

Poor Infrastructure Leading to High Cost of Acquiring Upgraded Equipment

Officers were questioned to present their opinion on whether poor infrastructure was a challenge influencing the modernization of equipment in the TPDF. Majority of the respondents indicated that the government had failed to invest in the modernization scheme due to poor infrastructure, therefore not seeing the significance of upgrading the tools used. The findings of the study are showed in the figure 4.7 below.

Findings from Figure 4.10 reveals that 50 (50 percent) of workers agreed, 30 (30 percent) were undecided, and 20 (20 percent) strongly agreed with the statement. According to the data, 70 (70 percent) of the military Engr agreed with the assertion that, bad infrastructure is also a challenge affecting the modernization of air transport in TPDF. According to the study’s conclusions, Tanzania generally suffers from inadequate infrastructure. The quantity and kind of aircraft that may land are often constrained by a lack of adequate infrastructure. Due to inadequate infrastructure, TPDF was only able to land specific types of aircraft in particular locations. Despite the short length of the runway in Bukoba, the lack of tarmac meant that planes were unable to land there during the wet season, resulting in flight delays and cancellations. Infrastructure in this example included airport runways, ATC buildings, Multiple runways to support the number of aircraft volumes, Safe hangers for TPDF to store their military aircrafts.

Equipment not only the planes tools, but also other items that are used during travel. As stated in the literature assessment, constraints to the expansion of domestic air transport include insufficient airport infrastructure and a lack of airports in viable destinations, such as the regions described above. Tourists flock to western Tanzania’s Tabora and Kigoma districts for its historical landmarks and the region’s chimpanzees, but there is no air transportation available.

Lack of Skilled Personnel to Modernize the Equipment

Military personnel were required to present their opinions on whether lack of skilled personnel in the technological advancement of equipment was a the main reason for challenges in the modernization of equipment in the air transport sector in Tanzania. These findings are shown in figure 4.8.

Lack of Skilled Personnel

Findings from the research indicated that there were 50(50%) military personnel who agreed; 30(30%) of those personnel strongly agreed; 10(10%) objected; and 10(10%) of those personnel were impartial. A total of 80 employees (or 80 percent) agreed with the aforementioned statement when taken as a whole. In the investigation, part-time or low-cost workers are found to be employed by the government. This also means that the nature of the services given is not conventional. As a result, military personnel express their displeasure and voice several grievances. Many TPDF personnel have expressed dissatisfaction with government services, particularly at the field, and attribute this in part to poor hiring practices.

According to Hanlon, government air transport face a difficult problem in differentiating their product, which is in accordance with the facts shown above.⁵⁹ A military personnel experience might be the only difference between two service providers in some circumstances. The importance of carefully selecting, training, inspiring, and rewarding officers should thus not be underestimated by the government. With such strategies, there is possibilities to realize well-trained personnel to carry out the modernization scheme.

Basit (2018) noted that in addition to highlighting the influence of employee conduct, quantity and uniforms on the military image, it is also in accordance with this study.⁶⁰Motivating of the military personnel plays a vital role in enhancing their skills and knowledge thus making them deliver high skilled modernization schemes.

According to Stamolampros, Tanzania’s defense aircraft group lacks well-trained personnel in the field of modernization, prompting TPDF sector to seek technology experts from abroad, which increases operational expenses.⁶¹ Tanzania is a pricey travel destination because of its high airline operation taxes and overtaxed aviation services.

High Airline Operation Tax Increase Expenses

Employees were asked to provide their thoughts on whether rising airline operating taxes and over-taxed aviation services made it difficult for firms to modernize their aircraft equipment. The researcher made an assumption that, with the increasing taxation many firms lacked enough capital to upgrade their equipment, resulting in a drop in service delivery. A diagram depicting these results is shown below:

Based on the a/c Engrs response above, there were 50(50 percent) workers who agreed, 20 (20 percent) who were undecided, 10(10 percent) who firmly agreed, and 10 (10 percent) who disagreed. A total of 60 percent of employees agreed with the assertion that, increased airline taxes in Tanzania, particularly in the TPDF, force most companies to rethink their decisions to modernize aircraft equipment. As a result of rising airline operating taxes, only a small number of companies have chosen to modernize their equipment. In addition, 20% of the employees disagreed with this statement.

Overtaxed and overtaxed aviation services contribute to challenges in modernization of a firm equipment, therefore, compelling people to continue their equipment despite the malfunctions being experienced. This is supported by Charles, who claims that service tax is a challenge in a modernization plan.⁶² The airline business relies heavily on third-party services, including as ticketing, aircraft maintenance, and ground handling, all of which are subject to the service tax, according to him, leaving Indian carriers vulnerable in the face of fierce competition. In addition to the already high operational costs, the government of India charges a service tax on all fares and services purchased by Indian airlines.

Low Maintenance Cost and High Modernization Cost

Respondents were asked if they regarded that the high cost of aircraft modernization was always a significant hindrance to the upgradation plans. Figure 4.5 shows the results of the investigation;

The statistics in Figure 4.4.5 reflect that 70% of workers strongly agreed with this statement that the high modernization cost as compared to maintenance cost contributed to the challenges in modernization; 20% agreed; and 10% were undecided. The study found that 90% of officers believe that the expense of modernization of their equipment is a major issue. This indicates that equipment upkeep is a major issue for the TPDF. If it is done at all, it is done inefficiently thus leading to possible occurrences of accidents. The importance of equipment maintenance cannot be overstated in the aviation.

Due to both the high expense of operating an airplane and maintaining it (which is a major issue for most airlines), there is a lot of pressure to keep their planes in good working order. Due to high maintenance costs, most equipment fails to function. At the Dar-Es-Salaam airport, TPDF, a large number of its planes are dysfunctional due to lack of proper maintenance. Airlines cease contracts with airlines because of what Pat says are widespread embezzlement and mishandling of the leasing arrangement, leading in a $41.4 million debt that must be paid off by going through substantial maintenance.

As the aviation industry grows, so does the demand on accessible airspace, necessitating a greater emphasis on making the most of what is already there. Point-to-point and direct flights are predicted to grow in popularity due to the expansion of scheduled and general aviation aircraft. In addition, the rising cost of fuel is a serious issue for the whole aviation industry. Flight delays, cancellations, choke spots, inefficient operations, might rise as air transport becomes more complicated, especially when unpredictable weather and other circumstances limit airport capacity, as is the case now. The cost of operations will continue to rise unless there are modernization in equipment efficiency and labor productivity. In the short term, air transportation equipment modernization must take advantage of present and emerging capabilities while also laying the groundwork for meeting the stakeholder community’s future demands. The use of PBN principles can help ease some of these problems by increasing the efficiency of airspace and processes.

Based on the second objective that has been presented in chapter one, which states that “to find the road map for the modernization of air transport in Tanzania TPDF”, this sub heading aims at discussing the road map and present them in form of tables and figures of modification, upgradation and substitution of the existing equipment thus equipping them with the latest technologies to realize efficiency in service delivery.

Modification of Aircraft Equipment

Aircraft Engrs were asked to provide their thoughts on whether modification of aircraft equipment was a road map that was being invested by the government in modernizing air transport equipment. The findings are shown in the figure below:

According to Figure 4.14, 40(40 percent) of the 100 workers who participated in the survey agreed, 30 (30 percent) strongly agreed, and 30(30 percent) disagreed. A/c Maintenance Engrs agreed that a lack of airports in possible locations is an issue for the organization, with 70% of the workforce agreeing with the assertion.

The results above signify that the Tanzanian government has fully invested in modification of air transport equipment as a road map towards modernization. With the country has very few military airports and the existing equipments are not yet modernized to cope and be able to compete with other military sector in other countries. The findings also indicate that the airports that are considered to be the international airports are also in constant modification and repair to realize modernity. With the government having focused more on the TPDF equipment modernization, other sectors have been left vulnerable to accidents and failure of equipment. This is supported by the findings of Makubo as indicated in the literature review that, the country has small and poor quality plans that only allow certain types of military planes to land.⁶³ While taking off from Tanzania’s Kigoma airport in 2015, a Dash 8-300 aircraft with 35 passengers and four crew members slid off the runway. Due to a wing and engine swerve, the Air Tanzania Company Limited aircraft was forced off the runway. It was on its way to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’s commercial hub, through Tabora.

Upgradation of Air Transport Equipment

The respondents were asked to indicate in the provided questionnaire if there are continuing plans in upgradation of air transport equipment as a strategy to modernize air transport equipment. The findings from the analyzed responses have been provided below:

Table 4.12: Upgradation of Air Transport Equipment

On the other hand, according to the data in figure 4.15 a whopping 60 per cent of Maintenance Engrs strongly agreed, 30 per cent agreed, and 10 per cent were undecided According to the data, a total of 90 percent of TPDF personnel agreed with the claim that there were ongoing strategies by the government to modernize air transport equipment in the TPDF by upgrading the existing equipment to their modern form.

The findings above depict that despite the challenges facing the air transport sector in modernization of their equipment, there still exist plans to upgrade the existing tools to realize effective service. Currently, the TPDF is utilizing all the opportunities coming their way to upgrade their equipment. Studies have shown that the TPDF in Dar Es Salaam has called upon investors with interest of boosting their equipment through modernization to help them realize effective service.

Research conducted by Shen et al. found that in the aviation business, selecting the appropriate upgrade channels is critical to achieving the company’s aim of maintaining peace.⁶⁴ When it comes to upgrading airlines, ICT has always been a major consideration. Hanlon adds weight to this argument by arguing that modernizing air transportation equipment is essential to achieving this goal.⁶⁵ When American Airlines introduced the first computer reservation system (CRS) in the 1950s, it signaled a shift in the ticket distribution industry. Intermediaries like travel agencies have access to information and may book a variety of touristic items like plane tickets and hotel rooms all around the world thanks to general distribution network.

Substitution of Existing Equipment

Officers were asked to provide their thoughts on whether substitution of existing aircraft equipment was a road map that was being invested on in an effort to modernize air transport. The findings are shown below;

Figure 4.13: Substitution of Existing Equipment

As seen in figure 4.15, sixty-five percent of officers strongly agreed, thirty-three percent agreed, while ten percent of officers were unsure. A total of 90 out of the TPDF a/c maintenance Engrs agreed with the findings that with the statement that most air transport companies are currently substituting there equipment as a strategy to modernize them.

The findings above are in line with Hanlon who claimed that the discovery of natural gas in Mtwara provides a fundamental potential ability for substitution of air transport equipment, but only if the available opportunities are put into place.⁶⁶The airline sector in Tanzania, based on the facts above, still has a lot of room to develop and stabilize in the near future by investing in the substitution scheme. By comparison, in 2010 between 600,000 and 700,000 people visited the nation each year, as reported by URT. (URT). The increased number of tourists in the nation gives greater opportunity for the growth of the aviation equipment substitution.

Measures to Overcome the Challenges Facing the Air Transport Operation

Based on the specific objective three which indicated that, to determine measures to overcome challenges facing modernization of equipment in the TPDF. Respondents were invited to provide possible solutions to the modernization issues. Figure 4.17 depicts the study’s findings as follows:

A variety of metrics were provided by the respondents based on their best understanding, as shown in Figure 4.17. 20 percent of the respondents indicated that the government should lower taxes, 19 percent said that infrastructures should be upgraded, and 13 percent said that education for employees should be provided. A further 7% of respondents thought the government and organization should form a cooperation with the aviation industry to further their goals. Moreover, 6 (6%) of those polled said that the organization and the government should work together to combat corruption. 5(5 percent) of the respondents said that the airline sector needs better personnel relations, while another 5(5 percent) said that appropriate government policy is needed to keep the business functioning smoothly. Reduction of bureaucracy by 44%, increase in inter-airline meetings by 44%, and a steady electrical supply by 44% are the top three responses, with 33% saying that fuel prices should be decreased as the worst answer. The government should promote local airlines, according to 22% of respondents, and the airline should look into employing qualified staff, according to another 22%.

Government taxes have a significant impact on the growth of the aviation, according to conclusions from the research. As a result, the sector is being compelled to raise its prices and operating costs due to tax problems thus lacking enough funds to modernize equipment. As a result of the government’s increased fees, most air transport companies are forced to raise its transportation prices, which in turn lowers the chances of investing in acquiring modernity in their air transport equipment.

According to Michel, air transport equipment modernization has been hindered by rising fuel prices and taxes, in addition to currency changes, and lack of an aviation expert.⁶⁷ This might be regarded as a direct or indirect consequence, for example, the increasing taxes would eventually lead to a shortage of finances for the implementation of modernization initiatives that have been devised. As a result of the rising costs of fuel, taxes, and other fees, the number of passengers flying with this airline will decline as they switch to cheaper options from other parts of the country.

Conclusion and Recommendations

In this chapter, the key conclusions of the study are summarized, and they are linked to Tanzania’s People Defense Force’s challenges and road plan for the modernization of air transport equipment. Furthermore, it includes ideas to adopt to enhance the TPDF and proposes topics for additional research.

The first objective for the research aimed at evaluating the challenges in the modernization of air transport equipment for the TPDF sector in Tanzania. The findings of the study further revealed that there are significant challenges in the modernization of air transport equipment which have been discussed in the context of financial difficulties, taxes, poor infrastructure, lack of skilled personnel, over taxed increases in fare and currency fluctuation.

The other side of the research looked at the road map for the modernization of air transport equipment in TPDF. The research revealed that there has been consistency in strategies aimed at boosting modernity of equipment in Tanzania. For instance, the study indicated that there have been ongoing plans related to upgradation, substitution and modification of these equipment to realize modernity. Despite the challenges facing the air transport sector in modernization of their equipment, there still exist plans to upgrade the existing tools to realize effective service delivery. Currently, the TPDF is utilizing all the opportunities coming there way to upgrade their equipment. Studies have shown that the TPDF in Dar es Salaam has called upon investors with interest of boosting their equipment through modernization to help them realize effective service. Additionally, there has been efforts by the government to hire skilled personnel in the field of modernization to equip the local engineer with the required knowledge on the subject, modernization of air transport equipment modernization.

The third objective for the research aimed at analyzing the measures available to overcome the challenges facing the modernization of equipment in the air transport sector. The findings for the study revealed that there is a need to educate members on the modernization to equip them with skills, hiring of skilled personnel, reducing taxes,ensuring stable electricity supply and cutting down on corruption scandals in the country.

The study revealed that, there are a number of challenges that are associated with air transport equipment modernization in the TPDF. This challenges, according to the research includes lack of skilled personnel, financial difficulties,poor infrastructure, taxes and lower maintenance cost as compared to modernization cost. The other side of the research looked at the road map for the modernization of air transport equipment in TPDF. The research revealed that there has been consistency in strategies aimed at boosting modernity of equipment in Tanzania. For instance, the study indicated that there have been ongoing plans related to upgradation, substitution and modification of these equipment to realize modernity. Training officers, reducing bureaucracy, having a stable electricity supply, lowering fuel costs, improving the management system, and hiring qualified personnel are some of the measures that can be taken to overcome the challenges that the TPDF is facing.

Conclusion

From the above findings, it can be concluded that despite its importance in the growth of the country and its many obstacles, there are a number of short-term and long-term challenges related to equipment modernization that has to be addressed. Community culture or public perception of service was clearly one of the most significant issues. Government over-taxation and financial constrains have played a major role in creating a wide range of challenges, both directly and indirectly. The rising cost of transportation can be attributed to both the rising price of oil and the rising cost of fuel due to currency instability and excessive taxes which have led to lack of enough funding. Because of these issues, employees have been underpaid, which has led to poor performance of lack of the necessary knowledge and expertise in the field of modernization. Despite the difficulties there are several potential that have yet to be fully realized, including long- and short-term ones like terminal development, regional integration, an expanding economy, and expanding industries like tourism and gas and fuel. However, the Tanzanian government has had tremendous strategies to realize effective modernization of equipment especially in the TPDF by engaging in road map such as modification, substitution and upgradation of equipment to realize modernity.

Recommendations

In light of the problems outlined above, a number of recommendations were made;

In order to help train and educate the staff on how modification, substitution and upgradation of air transport equipment is done, an aviation school recognized by the authorities should be created. This, in turn, will need the hiring of more qualified and skilled aviation workers to help equip TPDF personnel with the skills.

Investing in human capital was also encouraged, as was providing scholarships in the TPDF personnel and assuring the retention of skilled personnels. This strategy is aimed at creating highly skilled personnel to ensure modernization of equipment being used.

Establishment of good relationship with the goverment so that fuel and tax costs may be decreased, which in turn lowers air transportation costs, would allow more aviation sector to accumulate enough funding to enhance and upgrade their air transport equipment to their efficient form of use which is free from accidents.

In addition, it was suggested that the government incorporate the aviation sector into the national economic plan like other industries. The aviation sector will be able to develop more quickly.

Areas of Further Studies

The Tanzania People’s Defense Force Dar Es Salaam offices were studied in order to generate a conclusion that is assumed to be true of all other TPDF branches. As a result, a larger study can be conducted to determine whether the conclusion reached in this study is true of all TPDF branches.

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Appendix

Questionnaire for Respomdents

Introduction

It is the goal of this survey to gather information on challenges and road map for air transport equipment modernization in TPDF. The information you provide will be used solely to further the goals of this research, which is why it is strictly a research project for academics only. Confidentiality and anonymity of the information you give is guaranteed. I would want to ask for your help and involvement in order to make this project a success.

Respondent Personal Information

(Please circle the appropriate answer)

Please choose a score for each question.

The scores are according to the following scale.

1. Strongly agree 5
2. Agree 4
3. Neutral 3
4. Disagree 2
5. Strongly disagree 1

Challenges in Modernization of Air Transport Equipment in Tpdf

Kindly provide your response on the challenges in modernization of air transport equipment in TPDF.

Please choose a score for each question.

• High modernization cost is a major challenge affecting equipment modernization in TPDF:
  • Strongly agree 5
  • Agree 4
  • Neutral 3
  • Disagree 2
  • Strongly disagree 1

• The taxes charged are among the serious challenges impeding the TPDF running.
  • Strongly agree 5
  • Agree 4
  • Neutral 3
  • Disagree 2
  • Strongly disagree 1

• Poor infrastructure is a challenge in the modernization of equipment in air transport in the TPDF
  • Strongly agree 5
  • Agree 4
  • Neutral 3
  • Disagree 2
  • Strongly disagree 1

• Tanzania lacks skilled personnel who can carry out modernization plans in the air transport equipment
  • Strongly agree 5
  • Agree 4
  • Neutral 3
  • Disagree 2
  • Strongly disagree 1

• Higher airline operation taxes and over-taxed aviation services make Tanzania lack funds to perform modernization strategies
  • Strongly agree 5
  • Agree 4
  • Neutral 3
  • Disagree 2
  • Strongly disagree 1

What other challenges do you see in Air Transport in the TPDF?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Road Map for Air Transport Equipment Modernization in Tpdf

There are strategies by the TPDF to carry out modification on the air transport equipment as a road map for air transport equipment modernization:

• Strongly agree 5
• Agree 4
• Neutral 3
• Disagree 2
• Strongly disagree 1

There are strategies by the TPDF to carry out substitution of the air transport equipment as a road map for air transport equipment modernization:

• Strongly agree 5
• Agree 4
• Neutral 3
• Disagree 2
• Strongly disagree 1

There are strategies by the TPDF to carry out upgradation of the air transport equipment as a road map for air transport equipment modernization:

• Strongly agree 5
• Agree 4
• Neutral 3
• Disagree 2
• Strongly disagree 1

Measure to Overcome the Challenges Air Transport Equipment Modernization

Propose strategies for overcoming the challenges experienced by the TPDF in efforts to modernize their Air Transport equipment.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Footnotes

• 1 Zeigler, S. M., Harting, S., Bae, S. J., Brackup, J., & Vick, A. J. (2021). Aligning Roles and Missions for Future Multidomain Warfare. RAND Corporation. Web.
• 2 Sheehan, T. and Oclott, K. Road Traffic Accidents: Rescue and Extrication, 26thNational Conference Held on December1st-2nd 2011 in Arusha, Tanzania, 2011
• 3 Holtzclaw, John. Using residential patterns and transit to decrease auto dependence and costs. Vol. 11. San Francisco: Natural Resources Defense Council, 2017.
• 4 Bieger, R. and Agosti, J.Nine Solutions to Ease Congestion in Dar Es Salaam Ready to go Package; An Article, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, 2015
• 5 Sheehan, T. and Oclott, K. Road Traffic Accidents: Rescue and Extrication, 26thNational Conference Held on December1st-2nd 2011 in Arusha, Tanzania, 2011
• 6 Pakdil, Fatma, and Özlem Aydın. “Expectations and perceptions in airline services: An analysis using weighted SERVQUAL scores.” Journal of Air Transport Management 13, no. 4 (2017): 229-237.
• 7 Nyangarika, A., & Bundala, F. S. (2020). Challenges Facing Administration System for Quality Improvement on ODL Programs in Tanzania. International Journal of Advance Research and Innovative Ideas in Education, 6(2), 1259-1272.
• 8 Vargas-Ramírez, N., & Paneque-Gálvez, J. (2019). The global emergence of community drones (2012–2017). Drones, 3(4), 76.
• 9 Bisignani, Giovanni. “Director General & CEO International Air Transport Association Annual Report 2011 67th Annual General Meeting.”
• 10 Bisignani, Giovanni. “Director General & CEO International Air Transport Association Annual Report 2011 67th Annual General Meeting.”
• 11 Ramachandran, J., and K. S. Manikandan. “ITC limited: India first.” (2012).
• 12 Ramachandran, J., and K. S. Manikandan. “ITC limited: India first.” (2012).
• 13 Park, Jin-Woo, Rodger Robertson, and Cheng-Lung Wu. “The effect of airline service quality on passengers’ behavioural intentions: a Korean case study.” Journal of Air Transport Management 10, no. 6 (2004): 435-439.
• 14 Park, Jin-Woo, Rodger Robertson, and Cheng-Lung Wu. “The effect of airline service quality on passengers’ behavioural intentions: a Korean case study.” Journal of Air Transport Management 10, no. 6 (2004): 435-439.
• 15 Park, Jin-Woo, Rodger Robertson, and Cheng-Lung Wu. “The effect of airline service quality on passengers’ behavioural intentions: a Korean case study.” Journal of Air Transport Management 10, no. 6 (2004): 435-439.
• 16 Estache, Antonio, and Ginés De Rus, eds. Privatization and regulation of transport infrastructure: guidelines for policymakers and regulators. World Bank Publications, 2018.
• 17 Unpublished report prepared for the World Bank, Washington, D.C. August.2016.
• 18 Unpublished report prepared for the World Bank, Washington, D.C. August.2016.
• 19 Unpublished report prepared for the World Bank, Washington, D.C. August.2016.
• 20 Park, Jin-Woo, Rodger Robertson, and Cheng-Lung Wu. “The effect of airline service quality on passengers’ behavioural intentions: a Korean case study.” Journal of Air Transport Management 10, no. 6 (2014): 435-439.
• 21 Estache, Antonio, and Ginés De Rus, eds. Privatization and regulation of transport infrastructure: guidelines for policymakers and regulators. World Bank Publications, 2018.
• 22 Ramachandran, J., and K. S. Manikandan. “ITC limited: India first.” (2012).
• 23 Ramachandran, J., and K. S. Manikandan. “ITC limited: India first.” (2012).
• 24 Ramachandran, J., and K. S. Manikandan. “ITC limited: India first.” (2012).
• 25 Michel. (2013). “Air Transport in Western and Central Africa—Fact and Issues.” Interim Version 10.
• 26 Tretheway, Mike, and Kate Markhvida. “Airports in the aviation value chain: financing, returns, risk and investment.” (2013).
• 27 Carruthers, Robin, Ranga Rajan Krishnamani, and Siobhan Murray. “Improving connectivity: investing in transport infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa.” AICD Background Paper 7, no. 6 (2019).
• 28 Charles D., “Coverage, Sample Design, and Weighting in Three Federal Surveys” in Journal of Drug Issues, October, 2016.
• 29 Charles D., “Coverage, Sample Design, and Weighting in Three Federal Surveys” in Journal of Drug Issues, October, 2016.
• 30 Zhang, Anming, and Andrew Yuen. “Airport policy and performance in mainland China and Hong Kong.” (2018).
• 31 Belobaba, Peter, Amedeo Odoni, and Cynthia Barnhart, eds. The global airline industry. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
• 32 Chen, Changfeng. “Identifying significant factors influencing consumer trust in an online travel site.” Information Technology & Tourism 8, no. 3-4 (2016): 197-214.
• 33 Belobaba, Peter, Amedeo Odoni, and Cynthia Barnhart, eds. The global airline industry. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
• 34 Zhang, Anming, and Andrew Yuen. “Airport policy and performance in mainland China and Hong Kong.” (2018).
• 35 Cohen, L., D. Manion, and K. Morrison. “Research methods in Education. New York: Rutledge.” (2017).
• 36 Taherdoost, Hamed. “Sampling methods in research methodology; how to choose a sampling technique for research.” How to Choose a Sampling Technique for Research (April 10, 2016) (2016).
• 37 Kothari, C. “research methodology methods and techniques by CR Kothari.” Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers 91 (2017).
• 38 Clark, Kevin R., and Beth L. Vealé. “Strategies to enhance data collection and analysis in qualitative research.” Radiologic technology 89, no. 5 (2018): 482CT-485CT.
• 39 Basias, Nikolaos, and Yannis Pollalis. “Quantitative and qualitative research in business & technology: Justifying a suitable research methodology.” Review of Integrative Business and Economics Research 7 (2018): 91-105.
• 40 Kothari, C. “research methodology methods and techniques by CR Kothari.” Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers 91 (2017).
• 41 Hutchison, William D. “Sequential sampling to determine population density.” Handbook of sampling methods for arthropods in agriculture (2020): 207-243.
• 42 Cr, Kothari. “Research methodology methods and techniques.” (2020).
• 43 Bhardwaj, Pooja. “Types of sampling in research.” Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences 5, no. 3 (2019): 157.
• 44 Kothari, C. “research methodology methods and techniques by CR Kothari.” Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers 91 (2017).
• 45 Cr, Kothari. “Research methodology methods and techniques.” (2020).
• 46 Cohen, L., D. Manion, and K. Morrison. “Research methods in Education. New York: Rutledge.” (2017).
• 47 Cohen, L., D. Manion, and K. Morrison. “Research methods in Education. New York: Rutledge.” (2017).
• 48 Afolayan, Michael Sunday, and Omolade Adeyemi Oniyinde. “Interviews and questionnaires as legal research instruments.” JL Pol’y & Globalization 83 (2019): 51.
• 49 Amirrudin, Muhammad, Khoirunnisa Nasution, and Supahar Supahar. “Effect of Variability on Cronbach Alpha Reliability in Research Practice.” Jurnal Matematika, Statistika dan Komputasi 17, no. 2 (2021): 223-230.
• 50 Sim, Julius, Benjamin Saunders, Jackie Waterfield, and Tom Kingstone. “Can sample size in qualitative research be determined a priori?.” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 21, no. 5 (2018): 619-634.
• 51 Paais, Maartje, and Jozef R. Pattiruhu. “Effect of motivation, leadership, and organizational culture on satisfaction and employee performance.” The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics, and Business 7, no. 8 (2020): 577-588.
• 52 Paais, Maartje, and Jozef R. Pattiruhu. “Effect of motivation, leadership, and organizational culture on satisfaction and employee performance.” The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics, and Business 7, no. 8 (2020): 577-588.
• 53 Mubarok, Endang Saefuddin, and Juwiko Darmawan. “The influence of training, motivation, and work ethics on the internal communication and their impact on the employee performance.” European Journal of Business and Management 11, no. 24 (2019).
• 54 Vinod, Ben. Evolution of Yield Management in the Airline Industry. Springer International Publishing, 2021.
• 55 Sterne, Jonathan AC, Miguel A. Hernán, Alexandra McAleenan, Barnaby C. Reeves, and Julian PT Higgins. “Assessing risk of bias in a non‐randomized study.” Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (2019): 621-641.
• 56 Park, Jin-Woo, Rodger Robertson, and Cheng-Lung Wu. “The effect of airline service quality on passengers’ behavioural intentions: a Korean case study.” Journal of Air Transport Management 10, no. 6 (2014): 435-439.
• 57 Matimati, Upendo Thomas. “The impact of service quality on customer satisfaction in airline industry: A Case Study of Kilimanjaro International Airport (KIA).” PhD diss., The Open University of Tanzania, 2020.
• 58 Liu, Shielan, and Michael Henderson. “An Overview on Methodologies for Tailings Dam Breach Study.”
• 59 Hanlon, H.C. “The Cost of Traffic Accidents In Singapore. Paper Presented at the Ninth International”, 2017
• 60 Basit, A. Abdul, Tinneke Hermina, and Muslim Al Kautsar. “The Influence of Internal Motivation and Work Environment on Employee Productivity.” KnE Social Sciences (2018).
• 61 Stamolampros, Panagiotis, and Nikolaos Korfiatis. “Airline service quality and economic factors: An ARDL approach on US airlines.” Journal of Air Transport Management 77 (2019): 24-31.
• 62 Charles D., “Coverage, Sample Design, and Weighting in Three Federal Surveys” in Journal of Drug Issues, October, 2016.
• 63 Makubo, Fiona. “Assessment of the Airline Industry in Tanzania, Potential Opportunities and Challenges: A case of Precision Air.” PhD diss., 2015.
• 64 Shen, Chao, and Yazkhiruni Yahya. “The impact of service quality and price on passengers’ loyalty towards low-cost airlines: The Southeast Asia perspective.” Journal of Air Transport Management 91 (2021): 101966.
• 65 Hanlon, H.C. “The Cost of Traffic Accidents In Singapore. Paper Presented at the Ninth International”, 2017
• 66 Hanlon, H.C. “The Cost of Traffic Accidents In Singapore. Paper Presented at the Ninth International”, 2017
• 67 Michel. (2013). “Air Transport in Western and Central Africa—Fact and Issues.” Interim Version 10.