East Asia is the region that includes such countries as China, Japan, Mongolia, North, and South Korea. Taiwan and Tibet are quite disputed territories as the Chinese government considers them to be an integral part of the country, while these states claim their independence (Miller and Shahriari 182). Some of the mentioned countries are highly populated, but in certain areas (especially Tibet), population density is minimal. Nevertheless, irrespective of the differences in the geographical landscape, cultural uniformity is a characteristic feature of the countries of East Asia (Miller and Shahriari 183). This paper includes a brief description of East Asian culture and music, as well as the way the societies evolved.
Chinese Civilization
China is one of the countries that underwent various changes while preserving some values, concepts, or meanings. The Chinese culture started developing as early as the twenty-first century B.C.E., and it was influenced by the landscape of the region (Miller and Shahriari 184). The soil and woods of the plain of the Yellow River became the key elements of the cultural paradigm of China (“BBC Documentary”). The development of technology and the use of bronze and iron shaped the way society and culture evolved bringing to life sophisticated items. The Chinese music development was also affected by social and political changes that took place throughout centuries, from antiquity to the communist traditions settled in the middle of the twentieth century.
Landscape and Materials
It has been acknowledged that the landscape and natural resources available to people have a substantial impact on the way the community residing in this area develops. China could be no exclusion, so its loess and wood were primary treasures valued by ancient people (“BBC Documentary”).
Loess was fertile, which contributed to the development of agriculture, and the woods constituted up to 80% of the territory. However, deforestation led to the almost complete disappearance of woodland with only remnants of the grand nature in Huang Ling (“BBC Documentary”). According to the legends, the Shang dynasty planted the trees there, and the plantations preserved water springs on the plateau. Wood was used to create tombs of the emperors, as well as numerous works of art. Wood was seen as a valuable resource, which was also used in music.
The development of China in the Bronze and Iron Ages was characterized by the creation of majestic pieces of art, economic stability that was followed by the period of unrest and horror. The interaction with the Western world was also instrumental in the further evolution of Chinese culture (Miller and Shahriari 190). The shifts that took place in Chinese society had an influence on the way Chinese music developed as new instruments were created. In addition, people’s memories about wars and horrors of turbulent times became the basis of many musical genres and pieces (“BBC Documentary”).
The twentieth century saw a mixture of trends and concepts with a direct interference of the political agenda (Miller and Shahriari 191). Music was seen as a potent tool of propaganda and a way to affect people’s minds and behaviors.
Chinese Musical Traditions and Concepts
China is characterized by a considerable degree of diversity in nature, people, ideas, and musical instruments. According to the traditions that evolved, Chinese people grouped musical instruments into eight broad categories “known collectively as the basin (or “eight materials”)” – namely, wood, bamboo, metal, stone, clay, skin, silk, and ground” (Miller and Shahriari 190). Due to the philosophical value of the number eight, “a philosophically complete ensemble” would include the instruments of all the categories mentioned above (Miller and Shahriari 190). The types of ensembles tend to bear the name of the materials used to create the instruments.
A characteristic feature of Chinese music is its vocal nature and diversity of regional forms and genres. It is possible to identify the most common topics musicians address in their instrumental or vocal pieces. These are nature, myths and literature, mood, and musical structure. In the majority of cases, the author is anonymous, and “the tune exists at an almost conceptual level” (Miller and Shahriari 191). The tune can be performed in many ways, as a solo or orchestral piece, as a song or unaccompanied tune. Telling stories with the help of musical means is another important tradition that led to the creation and popularization of different types of theatre.
The Guqin
The guqin is one of the symbols of Chinese culture and music. The tunes produced with the help of this instrument are characterized by meditative and intimate tones, which made guqin music “particular to Chinese scholars and philosophers” (Miller and Shahriari 192). This musical instrument is one of the oldest in world history that is currently used. The guqin is a rectangular board zither made of wood with seven silk strings. It is approximately 51 inches long and usually painted black. Eleven circles are made of mother-of-pearl mark vibration or acoustical nodes for the strings.
The musician uses fingers to play the guqin making sliding movements and touching the nodes. Typically, the guqin music comprises five tones, but other pitches can also be used. This music is characterized by short motives, which often makes it seem inconsistent with the Western listener. The guqin was mainly related to scholars who expressed Confucian values and ethics with the help of the instrument. Musical pieces were often inspired by Chinese literature as scholars were expected to be knowledgeable in Chinese poetry, philosophy, and history (Miller and Shahriari 194). Due to its use among a narrow circle of scholars or elites, the guqin music was (and remains) almost unknown to the general public.
Silk and Bamboo Ensemble: Jiangnan Sizhu
Silk and bamboo ensembles consist of string instruments (with strings made of silk) and flutes, fiddles, lutes, and some percussion instruments (made of bamboo). This music is characterized by a more pronounced rhythm, tunes, and phrases, as compared to guqin music (Miller and Shahriari 195). Silk and bamboo ensembles play tunes and compositions “from a limited repertory” that should be known to all musicians (Miller and Shahriari 195). Jiangnan‘s pieces often create mood, allude to a literary character or story, or focus on a historical event. This music is characterized by a duple meter “with obvious downbeats and upbeats” (Miller and Shahriari 199). The created melodies often have over five pitches while rhythms are mainly simple.
One of the most typical features of such ensembles that seem rather peculiar to Western listeners is the heterophonic structure of music. Heterophony is typical of Asian music, and musicians in such ensembles play one tune but in different ways. This style originated from Shanghai, but it was widely used and often modified in different parts of China. In contrast to guqin, Jiangnan music is quite common in daily settings as people play it during weddings or other social occasions.
Amateurs often played this music and formed ensembles. Unlike guqin notations that mainly included charts notifying when to stop or touch strings with some mentioning of pitch or rhythm, Jiangnan music notations use Jian Pu. Jianpu utilizes Arabic numbers that are believed to have been brought by Western missionaries. Rhythm and duration are described in these notations with the help of lines and numbers, and such keys as D and G Diao are mainly utilized.
Beijing Opera
The music of Beijing Opera can seem unusual for Western listeners with its “clangor of percussion” and “nasal-sounding” fiddle (Miller and Shahriari 203). However, live performances make this component of Chinese culture very popular due to its spectacle. Performers have brightly painted faces and masks, exquisite costumes, but the action on the stage is the most striking. Acrobatics based on Chinese martial arts makes Beijing Opera so popular among people of many cultural backgrounds.
Beijing Opera is referred to as Jingju (“capital city opera”) is characterized by little vibrato singing or no vibrato singing at all (Miller and Shahriari 203). The roles are high in range, which makes them sound peculiar for Western listeners and uncommon for Asian listeners. Some roles are performed in a declamatory style, while men performing female roles, which has been a common practice, sing in the falsetto voice.
Two groups of musicians use percussion and melodic instruments to accompany the cation on the stage. The melodic group is further divided into military and civil sections, the former use double-reed while the latter use fiddle. The military group plays percussion instruments exclusively and is led by a conductor. Singers improvise by the role type, linguistic tone, rhythmic pattern, and melodic mode.
Jingju strives for symbolic action and representation of various stories, which makes it different from other types of theatre. The characters are universal types, and every aspect of the play is stylized, and specific language is utilized. While actors in other types of Chinese theatre receive no formal education, those acting in Beijing Opera can obtain an education in specific schools that are usually supported by the government. Jingju is the theatre chosen as a preferred representation of the Chinese theatre, so other types are hardly performed outside the country.
Revolutionary Beijing Opera
Revolutionary Beijing Opera or yangbanxi is a very different form of Chinese theatre irrespective of the meaning its name may suggest. Actresses and actors on the stage are dressed in modern costumes that are often military uniforms (Miller and Shahriari 208). The setting and scenery are also modern and less symbolic. Importantly, Western instruments are mainly used, and even if Chinese traditional musical instruments are employed, Western harmony is utilized. Instead of symbolism, the story is based on “political ramifications” (Miller and Shahriari 209). Positive characters are the followers of Mao, and the villains are Chinese nationalists.
Mongolia
Mongolia is situated between China and Russia and has quite specific grassland landscapes that are called steppes with rather harsh climatic peculiarities. The population density of the country is one of the lowest in the region, and approximately 40% of Mongolians live in the capital city (Miller and Shahriari 213). In the past centuries, the region was inhabited by nomads who depended on horses and military expansion.
In the thirteenth century, Mongol Khans (emperors) were extremely powerful. They managed to conquer Korea, China under the rule of the Yuan Dynasty, as well as vast areas of Asia and even some parts of Europe. The empire declined soon and was controlled by China until 1921 (Miller and Shahriari 214). Therefore, the influence of the Chinese culture has been tremendous, but contemporary Mongolia has only a few remnants of its glorious past as the decades under soviet rule had destructive effects.
When discussing the specifics of Mongolian music, it is necessary to note that Mongolians have lived in relative harmony with nature, among cattle and steppe. Ritual singing and music that help people to unite with the spiritual world have been central to this region. Mongolian music is largely represented by urtïn duu (long songs) accompanied by morin khuur music and khoomei (known in English as throat-singing) (Miller and Shahriari 215).
The principal instrument is based on the way of life as it is a long-necked fiddle that is often decorated with a carved horse head at its top. The fiddle has two silk strings and a bow, males mainly play this instrument. Long songs tell stories related to the glorious past of the people, the beauty of nature, and spiritual aspects. Throat singing seems rather peculiar to western listeners, but it is also a natural invention of people who lived in steppes among their horses.
Korea
Korea is situated between two mighty countries, China and Japan, which defined the development of the peninsula. Korea was highly influenced by Chinese culture, and Koreans adopted Confucian teachings and Buddhism. Chinese music also had a significant effect on Korean music, especially when it came to ritual and court music. These genres of Chinese music continued evolving, but Korean court and ritual music remained largely unchanged, which makes Confucian ritual music a-ok “the oldest continuously living music tradition in the world” (Miller and Shahriari 218).
In the first part of the twentieth century, Korea was occupied by the Japanese (from 1810 to 1945). Therefore, some traits of the Japanese culture can also be found. After the end of the Second World War, the country was torn into two new states, North and South Korea. The former has been under the influence of Communist China, while the latter was under the influence of the western world while paying much attention to preserving its traditions.
P’ansori is a traditional genre of music that has become one of the features of Korean culture. P’ansori entails the performance of a vocalist who begins with “a cathartic wail” and then uses numerous vocal techniques ranging from whispers to shouts (Miller and Shahriari 219). The narrative is accompanied by drums music and is linked to such topics as duty, love, virtues, and others. Apart from traditional music, Korean popular music has become a characteristic feature of South Korea. South Korean bands created hits that earned wide popularity in the country and beyond. Many Korean bands and performers (for example, Wonder Girls or BoA) are popular in the USA (Herman). This genre can be seen as a mixture of Western and Asian modernity and traditions.
Japan
Japan is an island country with mountainous landscapes that are hardly appropriate for building or farming. Land, as well as other resources, are rather scarce, so minimalism and precision have become the major characteristic features of Japanese people (Miller and Shahriari 223). Unlike Korean or Chinese music that is often ornamental, Japanese music “prefers minimal activity and makes silence an integral part of the soundscape” (Miller and Shahriari 223). Japanese instruments are also refined and often regarded as pieces of art.
Sankyoku, translated as “three instruments”, can be seen as an embodiment of Japanese musical tradition (Miller and Shahriari 225). One of these instruments is the shakuhachi, a bamboo flute that is held vertically. The koto is a board zither that is made of paulownia wood. The instrument is 70 inches long and has ivory (or plastic) elements that support silk (or nylon) strings (Miller and Shahriari 225). Shamisen is a lute with a square wooden body and a long neck.
Ivory or plastic elements hold three silk or nylon strings, and the player uses ivory or plastic plectrum to pluck the strings. The music is highly structured, and players follow notations strictly with no improvisation. Sankyoku chamber music is usually performed in small spaces for a limited group of listeners. Every detail is well-thought, including instruments, notations, costumes, vocals, and words.
Kabuki theatre is another characteristic feature of the Japanese cultural landscape. Lutes, flutes, and drums, as well as performers’ singing, make up the stories told in a majestic atmosphere (Miller and Shahriari 231). Kabuki evolved on the basis of noh, earlier theatrical tradition, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Noh involved actors playing basic human types and moving slowly and the use of drums and a flute. Kabuki theatre is characterized by the use of more instruments and vocals.
Tibet
Tibet is a unique country due to its geographic location as its inhabitants live up to 17,000 feet above sea level (Miller and Shahriari 233). The climate in the region is harsh as daily temperatures may range from below zero to up to 80 degrees Fahrenheit. People live in rural communities farming and raisin Tibetan yaks (Miller and Shahriari 233). These conditions affected the way Tibetans saw the world, so their music is linked to their spiritual beliefs.
Buddhism is the primary religion practiced by the vast majority of the population. In the middle of the twentieth century, the Chinese invaded Tibet and started fighting against the religious practices that existed in the area. Nowadays, Tibetan monasteries are mainly used as museums. The tension between Tibetans and the Chinese government is still rather strong, which affects the development of Tibetan culture.
Tibetan ritual music is associated with the use of such instruments as dung kar, kang dung, dung chen, nga bom, and rom (Miller and Shahriari 234). The dung kar is a shell trumpet while kang dung is a timber trumpet. These instruments are played in pairs to produce overlapping and continuous sound. The dung chen is a metal trumpet that produces low pitches (Miller and Shahriari 234). The nga bom is a membranophone having two faces and placed vertically.
The player uses sticks to strike the drum that tends to accompany chants. The rom is a large cymbal the player strikes with a wooden stick. Instrumental performances and chanting are seen as spiritual sounds that are mainly performed for Buddhist deities (Miller and Shahriari 237). The major goal of Buddhists is to reach enlightenment, and chants help them create the necessary atmosphere for attaining this objective.
Conclusion
On balance, it is necessary to note that Chinese music is inspired by the landscape and the historical development of the country. Fertile soil, wood, and metals enabled Chinese civilization to develop and bring in remarkable cultural gains. Chinese music seems quite peculiar to the Western listener, but it is still acknowledged as unique and prominent. The Beijing Opera is accompanied by Chinese music and has become a representation of the Chinese culture. It is necessary to add that the cultural development of the country underwent a considerable shift in the middle of the twentieth century.
The Revolutionary Beijing Opera is an illustration of the changes the Chinese society faced. Although the political agenda has become prevalent, the Chinese culture and traditional music are still majestic illustrations of the might and significance of the Asian civilization.
The entire region has been highly influenced by Chinese cultural traditions, but East Asian countries still have their peculiarities in terms of their music and conventions. The musical traditions of Japan, South and North Korea, Mongolia, and Tibet have some similar features but are still unique. The location and climate of the countries can be seen as one of the most influential factors that contributed to the development of music in the region. However, the political agenda of China shaped the way such countries as Korea or Tibet evolved in many respects. Irrespective of these external influences, all the countries of East Asia have preserved their traditions, values, and cultural perspectives.
Works Cited
“BBC Documentary Civilisations EP01 China – the Soul of the Dragon English subtitles.” YouTube, uploaded by marlene heine. 2017. Web.
Herman, Tamar. “Why K-Pop Is Finally Breaking Into the U.S. Mainstream.” Billboard. 2019. Web.
Miller, Terry E., and Andrew Shahriari. World Music: A Global Journey. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2012.