Introduction
Profiling is a strategy used by law enforcement officers to pursue criminals based on similar characteristics, history or repetitive behavior. It becomes racial profiling when race is involved. Before the September 11th, 2001, terrorist attack in the United States, the Arabs and other immigrants living in America had the benefit of being treated as equals with the associate American. Apart from a few exceptions, the law treated everyone the same.
For women of Arabic descent, equality was a rare exemption because they were deprived of such civil liberties in their homeland. However, these liberties were abridged following the 9/11 terrorist bombing. The Arabs and other immigrants in America were deemed guilty because of their race and religion.
Americans became opposed to people of Arabic descent and other American citizens who had come from the Middle East. The aftermath of 9/11 was marked with numerous occurrences where Middle Eastern people were discriminated and verbally assaulted. Terrorists were described as people of Arabic descent who believed in Islam. This belief altered the way Arabs were treated in social places like airports, restaurants, and parks.
The life of the Muslims and Arabs living in America was affected as they faced mistreatment, interrogation and raids at their places of work, schools, and homes. They were expelled from flights and subjected to long hours of unnecessary questioning. Their businesses premises were destroyed or set on fire.
Their once friendly neighborhood turned out to be a nightmare. The hard work they had done to build institutions and earn the respect of their fellow Americans was reduced to nothing. This is because of the choices made by a few people who shared their religion and heritage. Presently, racial profiling has become a strategy for law enforcement officers in the name of protecting their country; hence, it is not a new phenomenon in America.
In the past, the Blacks and Latinos in America were discriminated because of their race. They were not allowed to share the same schools, buses or even streets with the white Americans. Although the 9/11 attacks presented lawmakers and enforcers with the problem of ensuring the security of Americans, the practice of racial profiling and racially motivated attacks within the United States quickly emerged and provided a national and racial identity for the formerly vague idea of a “terrorist”.
Racial profiling before 9/11
The Government and other civil societies in the United States have battled to eradicate racism and prejudice for a long time. Several people have lost their lives in the fight for equality. Racism does not only infringe upon the rights of individuals, but also destroys a nation. Racial profiling against Arab Americans was present before the 9/11 attack. It is different from racial profiling against African Americans, which was aimed at making them feel inferior.
Arab Americans were resented and hated because of the stereotype they represent. After the September 11th attack, racism against Arab American took a different model which is challenging to address. The United States congress passed the USA Patriot Act which seeks to protect America by using appropriate strategies to combat terrorism.
This law gave powers to Law enforcement agents and intelligence agencies to hold non-residence for an indefinite period and conduct searches where necessary. According to Ghazali, before 9/11 these policies were considered illegal, a violation of private freedom.
Hostility has been directed to Arab Americas by citizens of America through hate crimes and bigotry. Hate crime statistics against Arab Americans accelerated following 9/11. The Arab Americans became targets of verbal abuse and violent eruptions. According to Peggy Stack in her article “Backlash Against U.S. Muslims; Anger taken out on Arab-Americans”, Muslims and Arab-Americans were verbally assaulted by their neighbours immediately after the attack.
A Muslim painter who was working on a building after the explosion was verbally attacked with comments like “why don’t you just blow the building up”. This comments come from people who had probably worked with him for a long time. Some of them were his friends, people who had a relationship with him.
Despite all these facts, this man was assumed to be guilty because of his religion. Another analogous view is that of Ghazali in his book Islam Muslims in the post 9/11 America. The author asserts that Muslim bashing was tolerated in America in post 9/11. A year after the attack, street vandals in Ohio spray painted windows of a Muslim owned market. Later, they stole property and money from several shops.
Racial profiling and the right to freedom
Racial profiling in America after the 9/11 bombing was a measure used to protect the people of America. It is alleged that terrorists who desired to destroy United States originated from the Middle East or other countries, which were predominantly Muslim. For that reason, law enforcement officers used race as a factor in detaining and questioning suspects. This strategy was justified as the cost of war. It was a token to ensure the safety of the nation.
Statistics reveal most terrorist attacks against United States is carried out by people of Arabic descent and Islamic dedication. However, this does not justify the price paid by the Arab-Americans following the 9/11 attack. Despite the fact, they did not plan the attack, their rights as American citizens were deprived.
Their constitutional freedom to assemble and freely exercise their religion was violated. Some of these people were born in America while others had lived there for most of their adult life. They have embraced the culture and the people of America. Therefore, it is tragic for Arab Americans to pay for the mistakes of other people.
Racial profiling violates the liberties of Arab living in the United State. Audrey Hudson in her piece of writing, “Muslim pilgrim surged to complain; ‘Airport profiling’ seen as concern” demonstrates how a group of Arabs were humiliated in a United States flight. The incidence occurred during the hajj celebrations.
Hajj is a pilgrimage to Mecca, the holy city of Muslims. During this incidence, six imams travelling to Mecca were removed from the plane because they were seated in places not assigned to them. In their excitement, they were conversing amongst themselves in Arabic. The manner in which the imams were seated was similar to that of the 9/11 bombers. This profile was used as evidence and justified the removal of the imams from the plane.
Apart from their seating arrangement and language, the police had no solid proof against the imam. This incidence humiliated and violated the rights of the imam. Racial profiling promotes bitterness, a sense of hurt and loss of self esteem. The law failed to protect the imams because of their race. In another racial profiling case, an American citizen of Pakistan descent was subjected to an unnecessary security search simply because she was wearing a hijab.
The aftermath of 9/11 saw several Muslims and Arabs reported or detained for immigration anomalies. Law enforcement officers used immigration rules and regulations as an anti-terrorism instrument. Muslim and Arabs faced minor immigration violations, while the violations made by other races were ignored. In 2004, two Muslims girls were detained on suspicion that they had plans to become suicide bombers.
These sixteen-year old girls were held in Pennsylvania detection center before they were released and deported back to their homeland. Custom agents have been reported for interrogating Muslim passengers on their faith at the border. These officers ask “whether the passengers attended Madrassah or which mosque they attend. Other officers asked the women to remove their hijab in public places; this is contrary to their beliefs and traditions.
These actions infringe upon their religious rights. In addition, Muslim charities were closed down on allegations that they funded terrorists groups. Ghazali claims that the government neither provided evidence linking these organizations to terrorism nor filed criminal charges against them. Intelligent officials just froze their resources and apprehended their assets. It was up to the organization to prove that they were innocent.
In the attempt to bring out the adverse effects of racial profiling, Alsultany in her article “Prime- time Plight of the Arab Muslim American” reveals how racial profile is justified in a television show representing the happenings after 9/11. In this show, there is an airline whose catchphrase is we “Don’t Fly Arabs”.
The Director uses this phrase to advertise his airline as safe and security conscious. According to Evelyn Alsultany, this show can be used as an example of the aftermath of 9//11 because it correlates with genuine occurrence. In one episode in court, the CEO was asked why he was discriminating against the Arabs and Muslim Americans.
He said, “Because they blew up the world trade center”. This show represents incidences of airlines removing Arabs and Muslim Americans from flights. In addition, Evelyn claims that the number of incidences where passengers refused to fly with Arabs increased after 9/11.
For example, A Muslim man in New Jersey was ordered to leave the flight because the passengers were uncomfortable around him. In another case, an Arab FBI agent on his way to see the president was expelled from a flight because the pilot thought his behavior was suspicious.
Racial profiling based on misconceptions
Following the attack, racial profiling against the Arabs went beyond verbal abuse. Some citizens resorted to violence to equalize the act of terror. In his article, “Misunderstanding of Islam is the root of hatred” Kozakowski points out the misconception that people had about terrorists.
Kozakowski claims that most Americans are ignorant on the subject of non-western religion. Americans faces difficulties in differentiating Hinduism from Islam or Buddhism. In this article, a man was killed because he wore a turban and he had a long beard. His assassins associated the dressing to Middle Eastern people. The truth is that this man was devoted to a Hindu sect known as Sikh. The author explains that the majority of Americans think that Middle Eastern people are devoted to a monolith religion.
They associate all Arabs with Islam. If a person has Arabic features, then you are Muslim. Likewise, if a person wears a turban and flowing garments then he/she must be a terrorist. However, this is not true. According to Kozakowski, Islam is not synonymous with people from the Middle East. Not all Arabs are devoted to Islam or terror groups.
Some of them believe in Hinduism while others are Christian. The misconception held by most Americans brought immense misery to the Arab Americans after the September 11th attack. They were profiled based on their dressing and physical characteristics. Ghazali calls these misconceptions ‘Islamophobia’. He defines Islamophobia as discrimination based on misinformed versions of Islam and its followers.
The other misconception contributing to racial profiling is that all Muslims living in America are believed to come from the Middle East. Even so, this is further from the truth. Kozakowski claims that Arab Americans comprise of people whose families have been living in America for centuries. Some of these people may have converted to Islam later.
Others are African- Americans who embraced Islam. On the other hand, there are Muslims who migrated to America to Study or work. Instead of embracing the different cultures, Americans have responded by stereotyping and racial profiling all Muslims. To them, all Muslims are terrorists. They have created images that associate Arabs with deserts, caravans, suicide bombers and machine guns. It is unfair for Arab Americans and Muslims for that matter to be profiled in light of these images.
Balbir Singh died because of his appearance; he had no associations with the terrorist. His only crime was keeping his beard and wearing a turban. The act of terror was carried out by a group of extremists who do not express the position of all Muslims. According to Kozakowski, the Muslim community does not condone the terrorist attacks. In the same way, Americans should not condone racial profiling against Arab Americans because of their physical characteristics.
These misconceptions were increased by the campaigns against Islam by religious leaders and neoconservatives. A church in Florida wished to burn the Quran in commemoration of 9/11. Although they later aborted their plans, this act illustrates Islamophobia in America.
Moreover, the media led anti-Islam campaign on television and radio talk show. Islam was dehumanized as a hostile religion; it was compared to Nazism. In different shows, radio and television personalities justified their claims by referring to the 9/11 attack. The media were dedicated to demonstrating that Islam is a violent religion. Shows demonizing Islam was quite popular after 9/11. Islam was attacked by leaders from various social and political arenas as an extremist religion.
During President Obama campaign, his opponents associated him with Islam in order to sabotage him. Moreover, there were claims that the Sharia laws observed by the Muslims would replace the constitution when Obama administration assumes power. Publishers and movie directors were not left out in the Anti- Islam campaigns. Anti- Islam crusaders became millionaires overnight. Mason crest publishers released children’s books that contained inflammatory materials on Islam.
These books encouraged children to shun Muslims because they were terrorists against United States. If this was not severe enough, another publishing house released a coloring book for children that characterize Muslims as terrorists. These books relay dangerous messages to children who will grow up to believe that followers of Islam are violent.
Comparison of racial profiling towards African American and Arab Americans
Corlett states “racism is based is based on either a lower or higher –order form of ethnic prejudice”. In the past, the black Americans were discriminated because of their skin color. They were said to be close relatives of the apes. The aim of their subordinates was to make them feel inferior and, therefore, justify their position in society. Statistics show the majority of black Americans who died in 1920-1932 were killed by White police officers.
Unnever and Gabbidon support this claim in their book A Theory of African American Offending. They assert that racial discrimination causes African Americans to nurture weak societal connections with existing institutions. As a result, African Americans develop negative emotions like resentment, frustration, hopelessness, and rage. Racial profiling towards African Americans has been a predicament for a long time.
Grant and Byers explain that black Americans have been targeted for traffic stops and criminal activities. They go ahead to explain that, a higher percentage of black Americans and Latinos who have been stopped by law enforcement officers are likely to report that they have been frisked, cuffed or ticketed compared to their fellow whites.
Some officers will further threaten or use violence against them. Moreover, African Americans have been stopped by law enforcement officers on suspicion that they were driving expensive cars. The acronym for this racial profiling is DWB which means “driving While Black”. In other cases, a black man is profiled simply because of his mode of dressing.
Apart from traffic stops, Black Americans are associated with drug trafficking. Police assume that most drug offenses are carried out by these two groups. As a result, Law enforcement officers have based their search on this racial profile. Because of the considerable amount of time and resources used by the police on black Americans and Latinos, they locate an unbalanced number of the minorities with drugs.
This cycle continues over and over until a racial profile is build against the Blacks and Latinos. From these statistics police justified their claim on the minority groups. This assumption increases the racial profiles that violate the rights of African Americans and Latinos. Similarly, the police fail to concentrate on white people who commit the same crimes.
The white perpetrators remain unsuspected as they continue with the illegal trade. Unnever and Gabbidon assert that stereotyping of this nature against the minority is the basis of Black Americans offending. If they are arrested for a crime the first explanation is that they are black.
African and Arab Americans are oppressed communities living in the United States. The racial profile against these communities may be different but similar all the same. African Americans are stereotyped to be inferior while the Arab Americans are characterized as terrorists. Both races have their rights and liberties violated in the name of national security. It is acceptable for law enforcement officers to arrest these groups for any unnecessary suspicion.
This is because it is in the best interest of the country. African Americans were limited to share similar amenities with the white. They had to walk in different streets and use separated buses or sit at the back off the bus. Their children went to different schools and earned different certificates. Similarly, Arab Americans are discriminated from airplanes. They are barred from fights and seats in exceptional seats where people can watch them.
Conclusion
Although racial profiling against Arab Americans is used as a security measure, profiling on the basis of race should be a concern for all the citizens in America. The discrimination against a certain race may augment to include everyone. The individual rights of everyone may be violated and controlled by a domineering administration. The necessity to protect the citizens of America against terrorists may require the government to pass new policies.
However, these policies should not violate the rights of the entire population in the end. America is guilty of shameful acts of discrimination against the Black Americans. The question now is whether the country is prepared to repeat the same mistake again. Expelling Arab and Muslim Americans from airplanes is the similar to asking the Black to take a seat at the back of the bus. If Americans repeat history, then it means they have learnt the significance of judging based on character and not race.
Although the 9/11 attacks presented lawmakers and enforcers with the problem of ensuring the security of Americans, the practice of racial profiling violates the rights of Arab Americans. There is no moral justification for dehumanizing people on the basis of religion and race. It was wrong to discriminate against African Americans, and it is wrong to discriminate against the Arab and Muslim Americans.
Bibliography
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Corlett, Angelo. Race, racism, and reparations. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003.
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Ghazali, Abdus. Islam and Muslim in the Post-9/11 America. 2012. Web.
Grant Kiara and Byers Tosha. “Racial Profiling: Shows Unequal Justice for Blacks”. Missouri Western State University. 2002. Web.
Hudson, Audrey. “Muslim pilgrim surged to complain; ‘Airport profiling’ seen as concern.” Washington Times. 2006. Web.
Kozakowski, Michael. “Misunderstanding of Islam is the root of hatred.” Georgetown Independent. 2001. Web.
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Unnever James and Shaun Gabbidon. A theory of African American offending. New York: Routledge, 2011.