Introduction
Social interactions are a fundamental part of every individual’s life and their evolution. In the early stages of their development, a person learns to socialize and behave in ways that follow accepted norms and to cooperate with people around them. Social interactions determine a person’s ability to succeed in the future and build a successful career.
However, in many cases, an individual may face difficulties for various reasons. Antisocial manifestations and problematic behaviors, such as aggression, are among the causes that are frequently observed in children. If left unaddressed, they might lead to the emergence of more serious problems and delinquent behaviors. For this reason, it is essential to identify the predictors of such issues and provide timely support to prevent poor outcomes.
Relational aggression can be considered one form of antisocial behavior or a manifestation that may be observed at different stages of an individual’s development. Traditionally, this form of misbehavior is more often linked to girls because of gender peculiarities. It is also one of the central factors of delinquency among young females (Centifanti et al., 2015). For this reason, there is a critical need to investigate the phenomenon and gain a deeper understanding.
The proposed literature review examines the problem of relational aggression, with a focus on girls. Precisely, it defines the term and its major features, discusses predictors of relational aggression, such as gender, culture, age, family, and society, and concludes with its effects on girls and how it can be addressed. The paper provides an enhanced understanding of the issue under research and lays the groundwork for further discussion and analysis.
Definition and Main Aspects
The importance of the topic and its impact on society’s functioning and the success of socialization have led to numerous research papers on the topic. Thus, the existing literature offers numerous definitions of relational aggression and its key characteristics. One of the most relevant ones is that it harms peers’ relationships through exclusion, rumors, manipulation, and violent behaviors (Voulgaridou & Kokkinos, 2023).
Moreover, there is a tendency to diversify the actions performed as part of relational aggression, including ignoring or manipulating social relationships (Voulgaridou & Kokkinos, 2023). There is a tendency to associate the relational aggression discovered in school-aged children with the social-psychological adjustment (Voulgaridou & Kokkinos, 2023). It means the phenomenon might emerge from problems in a child’s upbringing.
The increased importance of the undesired behavior and the need for its comprehensive research are justified by several factors. First, it is associated with numerous adverse psychological outcomes. These might include delinquency, problematic pro-social behavior, inability to build sound relations with peers, physical aggression and violence, substance use, ineffective emotion regulation, anxiety, and depression (Voulgaridou & Kokkinos, 2023).
All adverse effects can be observed in both victims and aggressors, making the phenomenon more dangerous (Voulgaridou & Kokkinos, 2023). For this reason, the enhanced understanding of the causes or predictors of relational aggression is essential for managing its outcomes and ensuring that individuals can avoid negative outcomes and socialize. At the same time, the enhanced understanding of the phenomenon requires its analysis in terms of direct aggression.
Numerous research studies on the problem emphasize the importance of the focus of the aggressive act. Thus, indirect, relational aggression and direct active aggression are considered opposite types (Alipieva, 2019). At the same time, they are interconnected, and the conflicts associated with relational aggression might lead to an increase in overt aggression levels (Alipieva, 2019).
In most cases, the victim and the attacker know each other, and if the conflict evolves, they might arrange meetings, which might lead to violent acts, beating, or injuries (Alipieva, 2019). However, if such cases can be easily detected because of their demonstrative nature, manifestations of relational aggression remain hidden. This unique feature makes relational aggression more challenging to discover and influence (Alipieva, 2019). If left unnoticed, it might lead to victimization and the critical deterioration of the situation.
The existing body of literature outlines that victims of relational aggression have a high risk of acquiring undesired complications and behavioral changes. A victimized child might accept the pressure from peers as an honest evaluation of his personality (Alipieva, 2019). It would create the basis for issues with self-control, outbursts of anger, anxiety, and depression (Alipieva, 2019).
Victims might also suffer from humiliation, including sexual ones, which cultivates depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts (Alipieva, 2019). In some cases, children who are selected as victims might become aggressors themselves and attack more vulnerable children (Alipieva, 2019). It means that relational aggression might create a cycle of abuse and discrimination. For this reason, early diagnostics of the issue and the appropriate choice of intervention are essential for every case and situation.
Gender and Age
Most studies of relational aggression emphasize the importance of gender characteristics. A larger number of researchers who focused on the topic state that females mainly utilize the phenomenon. (Spieker et al., 2013). However, the reasons for making these assumptions differ. For instance, girls might be more upset by relationship difficulties, which might lead to the emergence and development of this type of aggression (Spieker et al., 2013).
Furthermore, girls might be more willing to use violent and direct aggressive behaviors, such as beating (Spieker et al., 2013). Additionally, even if the rates of relational aggression use might be similar among boys and girls, there is a critical difference in how damaging these cases are (Centifanti et al., 2015). The empirical study by Centifanti et al. (2015) shows that females may use it for various purposes, including hurting their peers or adults. Moreover, girls often use relational aggression in romantic relationships, threatening to break up, flirting with others to make a partner jealous, or giving silent treatment (Bitsola & Kyranides, 2021). It means that women use relational aggression more often than men and in different ways.
Finally, relational aggression among girls is closely linked to specific age characteristics. This form of behavior might emerge in early childhood as an attempt to pressure parents or other people close to an aggressor (Alipieva, 2019). However, the aspect is mainly studied in adolescence because of several significant changes that occur during that period.
First, girls enter a developmental stage characterized by the formation of their self-concept (Alipieva, 2019). Additionally, they identify with peer groups and depend on the status assigned by these groups (Alipieva, 2019). The strong need for socialization leads to numerous attempts to avoid exclusion and to play a central role within a certain collective. Any threat to a teen’s position in a group might be viewed as a severe threat to their continued functioning within the given environment (Alipieva, 2019).
In many cases, adolescents consider relational aggression less dangerous than traditional aggression (Alipieva, 2019). Finally, adolescents know sarcasm, how to use it, and how to hurt others (Alipieva, 2019). In this way, this age is characterized by the highest risk of the emergence and development of relational aggression.
Predictors
Family
The functioning of the family and the atmosphere within it might be one of the possible predictors of relational aggression among girls. The behavior model adopted by family members shapes how adolescents build relationships with peers (Alipieva, 2019). Furthermore, specific parenting styles are associated with higher risks of developing relational aggression among girls. The literature shows that authoritarian and liberal parenting styles are more often associated with the emergence of indirect aggression (Alipieva, 2019).
Furthermore, reactivity and negligence may affect a child and foster inappropriate behaviors (Alipieva, 2019). At the same time, a positive family atmosphere and appropriate parenting reduce aggression among girls (Alipieva, 2019). Finally, problematic relations with peers might also be a predictor of relational aggression among girls (Alipieva, 2019). For this reason, family situation is a central factor in the behavior.
Psychological Abuse
Psychological abuse within a family might also be a strong predictor of relational aggression. Li et al. (2023) state that this factor is strongly linked with the given behavior in adolescents. Rejection sensitivity and relational victimization are the main factors leading to the emergence and development of negative coping styles among girls (Li et al., 2023).
The empirical study by Li et al. (2023) shows that rejection sensitivity mediates relations between childhood abuse and unsocial behaviors. In such a way, psychological abuse, as one of the possible parenting styles, might have a critical impact on the child’s personality and promote the emergence of undesired communication and interaction strategies. Children who experience psychological abuse in their families more often become either victims or aggressors (Li et al., 2023). That is why this aspect should be considered when discussing the problem.
Relationship with Peers
Interactions with peers are a significant part of an adolescent girl’s life. Thus, teens’ belonging to antisocial peer groups is one of the strongest predictors of relational aggression development (Alipieva, 2019). Other members might copy the bullying behavior demonstrated by a group’s leader to belong to the entity.
As a result, there is a high risk of the emergence of victimized individuals and those who bully them. The manifestations of the provocateur’s behaviors and actions may also lay the groundwork for the emergence and development of high levels of relational aggression (Alipieva, 2019). Girls tend to create groups to share rumors and focus on humiliating a certain victim (Gengel et al., 2017).
Furthermore, romantic relational aggression is more prevalent among girls who might treat their partners this way (Bitsola & Kyranides, 2021). They might avoid direct aggression but make a partner jealous or spread unpleasant rumors (Bitsola & Kyranides, 2021). In this regard, adolescents’ attempts to find their place in the group are critical for their behaviors.
Popularity
The struggle for popularity and social status is another critical feature that may predict relational aggression. Gengel et al. (2017) acknowledge a link between relational aggression and popularity among early adolescents. Girls using this behavior are considered more popular and influential by their peers (Gengel et al., 2017).
Furthermore, the empirical study shows that leadership strengthens the relationship between perceived popularity and relational aggression for girls (Gengel et al., 2017). In other words, female leaders use this behavior more effectively and frequently, which helps them to remain more popular (Gengel et al., 2017). Their gossip might be more effective in preserving and controlling the social hierarchy (Gengel et al., 2017). In such a way, the struggle for popularity is a strong predictor of relational aggression among girls.
Community
The setting might also be one of the predictors of relational aggression among girls. The research shows that children from poor or problematic neighborhoods have a higher risk of developing violent behaviors (Alipieva, 2019). Furthermore, role models and leaders in the area might influence other children and lead them to follow dominant behavioral patterns (Alipieva, 2019).
Female leaders might establish specific rules and hierarchy and use gossip to support them (Gengel et al., 2017). The empirical study shows that the lack of relational inclusion and support from other community members may harm all children and complicate their relationships with peers and adults (Flack, 2020). For this reason, developing empathy is one way to reduce aggressive behavior and cultivate positive behaviors.
Culture
Finally, culture should also be considered a factor associated with high levels of relational aggression. The existence of specific cultural patterns shapes attitudes toward the phenomenon and its effects on individuals. For instance, among Mexican-origin youth, where relational aggression is considered a developmentally normative behavior, it is less harmful (Aizpitarte et al., 2017).
At the same time, the individualism-collectivism continuum, which refers to the extent to which society’s members belong to groups, is important for the emergence and spread of indirect aggression forms (Voulgaridou & Kokkinos, 2023). In terms of gender, differences across countries can be observed. In the USA, research shows higher scores for females, whereas in other regions male and female scores were similar (Voulgaridou & Kokkinos, 2023). It proves that culture is one of the predictors of relational aggression among girls and might impact their behaviors.
Prevention
Finally, the predictors of relational aggression mentioned above impact the choice and implementation strategies that might be employed to reduce aggression rates. Effective prevention should imply diagnostics to determine the impact of all aspects mentioned above and manage them (Alipieva, 2019). For girls, relational aggression might be more emotionally stressful, meaning that additional psychological assessment might be required (Kawabata et al., 2020). Furthermore, the distress caused by the behavior might promote depressive symptoms, meaning that prevention can help to avoid more complex cases (Kawabata et al., 2020). In this way, prevention programs should include working with families, adolescent groups, and communities to create positive environments and prevent poor outcomes.
Conclusion
Altogether, relational aggression is a severe concern impacting contemporary society. The existing body of literature acknowledges the scope of the problem and its significance. It might lead to depression, victimization, problems with socialization, and high anxiety levels. Furthermore, this type of unsocial behavior is more typical for girls because of their gender peculiarities. The predictors of social aggression include gender, family background, community, peer relationships, and cultural differences.
Furthermore, the psychological abuse experienced by a child can negatively impact coping strategies and increase the risks of acquiring undesired aggressive behaviors. Most researchers acknowledge that the negative experiences adolescents face can complicate their relationships with peers and lead to exclusion and social isolation. A clear understanding of these factors is essential to introducing effective prevention programs.
References
Alipieva, D. (2019). Relational aggression among adolescent girls. Journal of Education & Social Policy, 6(4), 113-119.
Aizpitarte, A., Atherton, O. E., & Robins, R. W. (2017). The co-development of relational aggression and disruptive behavior symptoms from late childhood through adolescence. Clinical Psychological Science, 5(5), 866–873.
Bitsola, I., & Kyranides, M.N. (2021). Relational aggression in romantic relationships: A study into gender differences, correlates and predictors. Journal of European Psychology Students, 12(1), 16–26.
Centifanti, L. C., Fanti, K. A., Thomson, N. D., Demetriou, V., & Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous, X. (2015). Types of relational aggression in girls are differentiated by callous-unemotional traits, peers and parental overcontrol. Behavioral Sciences, 5(4), 518–536.
Flack, T. (2020). Relational aggression and relational inclusion in adolescents: The role of emphatic concern for victims of relational aggression and perspective taking. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 25(3-4), 201-214.
Gangel, M. J., Keane, S. P., Calkins, S. D., Shanahan, L., & O’Brien, M. (2017). The association between relational aggression and perceived popularity in early adolescence: A test of competing hypotheses. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 37(8), 1078–1092.
Kawabata, Y., Nakamura, M. S., & De Luna, M. J. F. (2020). A mediation model for relational aggression, victimization, attachment, and depressive symptoms in Guam: A gender-informed approach. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 14.
Li, T., Huang, Y., Jiang, M., Ma, S., & Ma, Y. (2023). Childhood psychological abuse and relational aggression among adolescents: A moderated chain mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 13.
Spieker, S. J., Campbell, S. B., Vandergrift, N., Pierce, K. M., Cauffman, E., Susman, E. J., Roisman, G. I., & the NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2013). Relational aggression in middle childhood: Predictors and adolescent outcomes. Social Development, 21(2), 354–375.
Voulgaridou, I., & Kokkinos, C.M. (2023). Relational aggression in adolescents across different cultural contexts: A systematic review of the literature. Adolescent Research Review.