Introduction
Self-pity is an emotional response that one experiences when under stressful circumstances and compels one to be remorseful. Under stressful circumstances, trauma overwhelms people and makes them harbor remorseful feelings of self-pity as means of seeking consolation. Given that different people have different capacities of dealing with traumatic experiences and distressing circumstances, they depict variability in self-pity.
Different personalities have different capacities of coping with traumatic experiences and distressing circumstances and subsequently different degrees of self-pity under similar stressful conditions. Perrotto (2009) argues that self-pity is a process of grieving that plunges into denial, anger, bargaining, depression and eventually acceptance of loss, illness or failure in life (p.5). Personality determines one’s ability to cope with distressing and traumatizing circumstances that are too difficult to endure. Hence, what are personality traits that determine extent of self-pity under distressing and traumatizing circumstances?
Summary of the Article
The article, Self-Pity: Exploring the Links to Personality, Control Beliefs, and Anger, explore different personality traits that determine degree of self-pity in individuals under varied distressing and traumatizing experiences. The article mainly focuses on establishing how multidimensional factors such as personality, anger, control beliefs, adult attachment, and loneliness significantly predispose one to self-pity.
According to Stober (2003), limited psychological studies of self-pity exist because theoretical models and clinical observations do not provide sufficient information, and therefore empirical studies of self-pity are quite essential (p. 188). Hence, the main objective of the study is unravel how multidimensional factors of personality predispose one to self-pity and determines capacity of coping with distressing and traumatizing circumstances. To achieve its main objective, the article has three objectives, viz. analyze literature review, conduct two empirical studies, and eventually integrate literature review with the empirical studies with view of setting direction for further studies on the subject of self-pity.
The study expected that there is variability of self-pity among individuals depending on multidimensional factors such as personality, anger, control beliefs, adult attachment and loneliness, all of which determine degree of self-pity. Basing on earlier clinical observations and research findings, the study hypothesized that, “…individuals with a tendency of self-pity would show higher levels of neuroticism, external locus of control, loneliness, anger-in , and anger out, as well as lower levels of anger control” (Stober, 2003, p.192). In addition, the study expected that self-pity should have gender orientation in that men should have lower levels of self-pity relative to women.
Thus, the study focused on two empirical studies to prove effectively and conclusively the hypothesis that personality, anger, control beliefs, adult attachment, and loneliness significantly determine degree of one’s self-pity. In this view, self-pity is a negative emotion that destroys individual’s self-esteem and ability to cope with distressing and traumatizing circumstances. Thus, weak individuals experience high level of self-pity while strong individuals experience low self-pity and can withstand great stress.
To prove the hypothesis, the study conducted two empirical studies that consisted of randomly selected students: 141 and 161 students who volunteered at Martin-Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg. In the first empirical study, 141 students volunteered in which there were 66 males and 75 females. The research administered closed questionnaires with various scales that measure different parameters such as self-pity, personality traits, control beliefs, anger expression, and loneliness.
In terms of self-pity, the study utilized self-pity scale with six items that ranges from 0-5. To measure personality traits, the study used five personality traits, which is very reliable and accurate in ascertaining the extent of neuroticism. Control belief is also another parameter that the research used in measuring externality, internality and externality related to chance forces that control an individual. Moreover, the research utilized anger expression and loneliness, which showed ability to react to stressful conditions and socialize with people respectively.
In the second empirical study, 73 males, and 88 females, adding up to 161 students of Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, who volunteered to participate in the study. The aim of the second empirical study was to establish how self-pity relates with facets of neuroticism, anger, and adult attachment. Like in the first empirical study, the study utilized closed questionnaires and employed self-pity scale to measure extent of self-pity in students.
To measure facets of neuroticism, the study utilized scales, which measured anxiety, anger, depression, self-conscious, impulsivity, and vulnerability. In the case of anger, the study used anger-related reactions in terms of functional and dysfunctional reactions. Functional reactions involved unaggressive feedback, noninvolvement in anger and viewing anger reactions as humorous. In dysfunctional perspective, the study measured ability of students to outburst, ruminate and submit to anger under stressful circumstances. Ultimately, the study employed measure of attachment qualities using parameters such as avoidant, secure and ambivalent attachment.
Results and discussion of the first study showed that male students showed low levels of self-pity as compared to female counterparts, which was consistent with the earlier empirical studies and literature review, thus supported the hypothesis. Moreover, the results showed that neuroticism highly correlates with the self-pity, which also support earlier studies and the hypothesis of the study. The study further reveals that externality beliefs directly correlate with degree of self-pity while internality beliefs inversely correlate with self-pity of individuals.
Like the first study, the second study confirmed that females are more susceptible to self-pity relative to males. Regarding facets of neuroticism, females have higher levels of vulnerability, depression, anxiety, and impulsivity, while they have lower levels humor and noninvolvement in anger reactions. Additionally, females have higher levels of adult attachment in terms of security for they feel quite unsecure when alone.
Critique of the Article
Self-pity is an emotional response that people experience when they encounter traumatic experiences in their lives that are too overwhelming to endure. Although clinical observation and theoretical views have tried to elucidate occurrence of self-pity, empirical studies are quite rare to warrant justification of theoretical perceptions. Therefore, empirical studies of self-pity are quite essential and appropriate in establishing empirical basis of sociological and psychological aspect of self-pity.
According to Funder (2000), comprehensive understanding of personality traits requires sociological and psychological perspective under which self-pity falls (p.183). The research is very appropriate as it utilizes both sociological and psychological techniques in carrying out empirical study of self-pity among students. Since self-pity is a social and psychological issue that affects emotions of individuals, it is imperative to establish its nature using empirical studies, which are quite reliable unlike theoretical reflections alone.
Since the research aimed at establishing factors that predispose individuals to self-pity, the parameters measured and the outcomes are very abstract and thus demand appropriate design of the study. Random selection of students at Martin Luther University reduced chances of biasness in selection of subjects while motivation volunteers to participate enhanced effective answering of complex and comprehensive questionnaires.
The study utilized closed questionnaire that made it for participants to select appropriate answers to questions asked. Closed questionnaire is very advantageous because participants can easily select required answers from options available unlike open questionnaires that require much thinking. Moreover, closed questionnaires enhance analysis of results and application of statistical tools and tests such as analysis of variance, multivariate analysis, regression analysis, and correlation analysis. Smith (2001) argues that closed questions enhance accuracy of collected data, minimizes bulkiness of data, do not take much time, and is cost-effective way of collecting information from large population (p.108). Thus, closed questionnaire suited the study for it entails collection of abstract information that requires accuracy.
To enhance both internal and external validity, the research used two empirical studies. The first empirical study sought to establish if self-pity significantly correlates with personality traits, control beliefs, anger expression, and loneliness. Given that the first empirical study established that significant correlation exists, it provided basis for the second empirical study. The second empirical study sought to establish if facets of neuroticism, anger, and adult attachment predispose an individual to self-pity.
Comparative analysis of results from both studies affirmed that self-pity is a variable that depend on personality, facets of neuroticism, anger, loneliness, adult attachment, and control beliefs. Hence, both studies enhanced external and internal validity of empirical study, thus validating essence of extrapolating outcomes. In addition, the number of subjects who participated in the empirical study was enough to minimize intrinsic errors and improve external validity of the outcomes.
Population of study were students of Martin-Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg who had not experienced great deal of traumatic experiences and distressing circumstances, hence did not provide sufficient information regarding self-pity. There is no solid evidence to suggest that college students have enough experience in life to give out information regarding self-pity. However, the college environment provides a social setting where students encounter various social issues that stress them and make them experience emotions of self-pity.
Social issues that emanates from dating, status, class, power, games, bullying, education and relationships seem to bear overwhelming influence on students and therefore stressful. Hence, study of self-pity among students is quite relevant for students who are young and sensitive to social issues as compared to adults. Moreover, college setting has many pressures that are distressing and traumatizing to students.
By utilizing multidimensional measures such as anger, loneliness, adult attachment, facets of neuroticism, control belief and personality traits, the study obtained comprehensive social and psychological aspects of self-pity. Harley and Robinson (2001) argue that measurement of abstract parameters in sociology requires the use of multidimensional factors to enhance empirical findings of the study (p.67).
In this case, the study employed numerous parameters to measure self-pity among students and went further to reaffirm validity of the outcomes using second empirical study and literature review. In addition, the study utilized statistical tests of analysis of variance, multivariate, regression and correlation analyses when analyzing collected data. Thus, the outcomes have scientific backing since the study employed scientific tools and tests in analyzing and assessing its results. The results of the study conclusively established that there is variability in self-pity depending on gender, personality, loneliness, anger, control belief, and adult attachment. The conclusion of the research is very fascinating because it has set empirical foundation of self-pity and provide lucrative base for further studies.
Relationship of the Study to Personality Theory
Self-pity is both a psychological and social issue because its psychological effects depend on social environment that have significant impact on development of personality. Psychologists and sociologists have formulated various theories to explain how human beings acquire complex and diverse attributes throughout their lifespan. One of the theories formulated by Albert Bandura is social cognitive theory, which he derived from early work of social and behavioral psychologists.
This theory seeks to explain psychosocial development process and factors that are integral in development of human behavior. According to Bandura (1989), personal factors such as thoughts, emotional affect, beliefs, actions, and biological factors interacts with behavior thus shaping behavior of an individual (p. 3). Cultural beliefs and values affect the way people of a certain culture behave and respond to various distressing and traumatizing circumstances.
In this instance, control belief in one of the externality factors that determines ones predisposition to self-pity. Given the social cognitive theory and diversity of the cultural beliefs and values in the world, the behavior of an individual in a certain culture will reflect their cultural beliefs and values (Walker, 2008, p.8). Hence, the diversity of cultures and values in the world reflect diversity of behaviors and extent of self-pity under distressing conditions.
Moreover, the self-pity also relates with psychosocial theory by Erik Erickson because it involves resolution of psychosocial crises that individual encounter during the course of life. According to Boeree (2006), personality development originates from innate characteristics of a child that sequentially occur through the eight stages of personality development under influence of society and culture (p.7). Each stage has an optimal time required for the ego to resolve a psychosocial crisis.
The resolution of the psychosocial crises at the preceding stages cumulatively determines the personality. Proper resolution of the psychosocial crisis in each stage result into a personality virtue while poor resolution of the psychosocial crisis result into mal-adaptation and malignancy. In this study, self-pity correlates with personality traits, which in turn depend on psychosocial resolution of crises throughout stages of life. Mal-adaption tendencies such sensory distortion, impulsivity ruthlessness, virtuosity, fanaticism, promiscuity, overextension and presumption affect personality traits and subsequently influence capacity of self-pity.
Likewise, malignant tendencies such as withdrawal, compulsion, inhibition, inertia, repudiation, exclusivity, rejectivity, and despair increases predisposition to self-pity. Thus, psychosocial theory of personality development reflect how mal-adaptations and malignant tendencies that individual retain after undergoing poor resolution of psychosocial crises at various stages weaken individual personality and predispose to self-pity.
Variability in gender susceptibility to self-pity also relates to psychosexual theory by Sigmund Freud. According to Stevenson (2010), childhood development of male and female children is quite different for they have different sexual orientations and intimacy (p.5). While male children grow through individuation, female children grow through intimacy with parents. According to Sigmund Freud’s Electra and Oedipal complexes, psychosexual development of a child occurs due to difference in erogenous sources of sexual drives and orientations.
While Electra complex orients a female child towards her father, oedipal complex orients a male child towards his mother, hence differentiating personality development in children. Therefore, psychosexual theory postulates that before a female child experience Electra complex, which is penile envy, she has emotional attachment to her mother and this attachment is the cause of developmental failure in women if not appropriately resolved.
Since female children experience penile envy as psychosexual crisis, poor resolution of the penile envy crisis in the psyche results into compromised ego development in women. Penile envy led Sigmund Freud to conclude that, judgment that women make significantly depend on conditions of affection and hostility. The conclusion correlates with the findings of the study that female students are more prone to self-pity as compared to their male counterparts, because of their differences in psychosexual development of personalities.
My life and Personality Development
The study of self-pity is quite relevant to my life for it has expanded my knowledge and understanding of self-pity. Earlier, I thought that self-pity was an attribute that is inherent in personality but now I understand that it is a weakness of personality trait. It is quite evident that a strong personality trait experience less self-pity, while weak personality trait experience high levels of self-pity. According to Nelson (2011), self-pity is an addictive and destructive habit that develops over time and eventually destroys personality (p.4). Since life contains endless challenges that are quite distressing and overwhelming, self-pity usually aggravates conditions of life for they offer no solution, except that it enhances acceptance of debilitating conditions.
To cope with distressing and traumatizing conditions of life requires self-knowledge. Self-knowledge helps in identification of varied self-attributes that determine personality and identity in society. Increased awareness of one’s attributes is necessary in dealing with daily imminent challenges that cloud and flood our minds since one can meditate to optimize abilities and improve on weakness. Without proper understanding personal strengths and weaknesses, it is a daunting task for anyone to optimize perceived abilities.
It is imperative for an individual to understand one’s capacity to self-pity as a weakness because self-knowledge enhances our courage and self-esteem. With the knowledge of self, one can face reality with courage and confront whatever challenges are cropping up in life. Understanding one’s attributes and by extension analyzing attributes of others broadens perception of life and thus I can use my own experiences in helping others identify and apply their self-knowledge in building strong attributes that overcome self-pity.
Moreover, self-pity has also enhanced my understanding of relationship between personality development and self-pity. There is an intricate link between personality development and predisposition to self-pity meaning that personality traits that an individual has determines susceptibility to self-pity. In addition, differences in gender development that determine development personality subsequently influence predisposition to self-pity.
Since children experiences new traumatic experiences relative to older people, they are more prone to self-pity as well as they are developing their personalities. This means that personality development among children delicately depends on varied social pressures that bring about social and psychological crises. Hence, children need proper resolution of crises so that they can have strong personality with capacity to cope with distressing and traumatizing conditions that elicit self-pity.
Conclusion
Self-pity is a variable emotional response that people experience after encountering traumatic situations. It is variable response because different personalities have different capacities of coping with traumatic and distressing experiences. Numerous studies have established that weak personalities experience high levels of personality while strong personalities experience low levels of self-pity. The study confirmed that variability of self-pity among university students depend on parameters such control beliefs, loneliness, personality, anger and adult attachment. These parameters are social forces that affect personality and predispose individual to self-pity. Hence, self-pity is a social and psychological issue that affects individuals across all ages.
References
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