Introduction
Personality refers to the characteristics of an individual that sets him/her apart from other individuals when subjected to varying circumstances. The development of personality is as a result of the interaction between an individual’s genetic composition and the surrounding. Personality development begins even before birth and is influenced by many external factors.
Many theories have been invented to explain the concept of personality development. This discussion explores the stages of personality development developed by Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. The psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud and dealt with the emotional development from a sexual perspective. This theory was later modified by Erik Erikson who focused on the role of social interactions in personality development.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
According to Sigmund Freud’s theory, a developing child has a particular “erogenous zones” like the anus, mouth and genitals that are sensitive at each stage. Therefore, a child focuses on what stimulates his “erogenous zones” at each stage. The needs of a child at each stage need to be met, otherwise he/she will end up getting stuck in that stage and this will affect him in adulthood. Freud came up with five stages of development which include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages (Engler, 2008).
The oral stage commences when a child is born. This stage lasts for about one and half years. At this stage, the mouth is the main point of focus for the child and the child spends most of the time sucking and trying to put everything in the mouth. At this stage, the ego and superego are not yet fully developed and, therefore, the child uses the id.
With time, the baby realizes that satisfaction of its needs might not occur immediately and, therefore, he/she must behave in a certain way in order to speed it up. For instance, a baby cries when he/she wants the needs to be satisfied. When a baby is weaned, he/she experiences a sense of loss and the baby realizes that he/she must not always get what he/she wants. A child whose demands are not met at this stage develops a personality of sarcasm, envy, pessimism, and suspicion.
Too much or too little oral satisfaction has a negative impact. A person who gets stuck in this stage may develop habits like biting nails and chewing things like pens as an adult. Someone who does not get enough oral satisfaction at this stage may also develop habits of eating and drinking excessively. However, a child whose needs are met at this stage ends up being optimistic and admires the surrounding environment (Engler, 2008).
The anal stage begins when the child is about one and half years; when he/she starts getting trained on how to use the toilet. At this stage, the child’s focus is on expelling body wastes. A child may choose either to expel or retain the waste. The way in which the parents handle this conflict determines its resolution.
This crisis gets resolved when the child manages to adjust to the demands of the parents and the parents handle the child reasonably. Thus, with time the child will understand the importance of being orderly and clean, and will, therefore, end up being an adult with self control. If the parents are very harsh when training the child to use the toilet, the child may choose to comply and develop a personality of orderliness.
However, a child who refuses to comply with the demands of the parents ends up being disorderly in future. A child who enjoys excreting irresponsibly will end up being careless, reckless, messy, defiant, and disorganized. On the other hand, a child who enjoys prolonging the retention of body wastes ends up being orderly, miserly, stubborn, precise, and neat. This stage lasts for around two years (Larsen and Buss, 2009).
Next is the phallic stage in which the child’s attention is on the genital area. The children become aware of the differences in their bodies and that of other children of the opposite sex. At this stage the child is obsessed with the parent of the opposite sex and desires to get rid of the other one. A male child will desire to possess the mother but sees his father as a hindrance. He starts getting envious of the father who he sees as his rival in the competition for the mother’s love.
However, the boy is afraid that the father might castrate him. When the boy realizes that he cannot possess the mother, he tries to be like his father so that he can win her. Therefore, he tries to acquire the characteristics of his father. Thus, he learns his male sexual role, and this marks the resolution of the crisis. On the other hand, the female child realizes that she does not have a penis and starts longing to have one. She blames her mother for her lack of a penis and develops “penis envy”.
She feels that she cannot own the mother since she does not have a penis. When she realizes that she cannot get the mother, she gets attracted to the father. The girl learns her sexual role by trying to become like the mother so as to possess the father. Thus, the conflict is resolved.
Failure to resolve this conflict may lead to women having very low self esteem, a desire to prove that they are superior to men or developing habits of flirting with men. For the men, failure to overcome this stage leads to them having high aspirations and arrogance. Failure to resolve the conflicts in this stage and identify with the parent of the same sex leads to recklessness, pride, fear of close love, and conditions like homosexuality (Larsen and Buss, 2009).
The next stage is the latency period in which the child’s sexual desires remain inactive. At this stage, children focus on other activities like games, schooling, and making friendships of the same sex. This stage occurs just before puberty. Failure to overcome the conflicts in the phallic stage might affect an individual in this stage and prevent him/her from engaging in the expected activities (Larsen and Buss, 2009).
The next stage is the genital stage. At this stage, a child’s attention shifts back to the genitals and he/she starts making friendships with people from the opposite sex. At this stage, individuals try to detach themselves from parents and deal with the conflicts that were not resolved in the earlier stages.
A child who resolved all the conflicts in the phallic stage will have healthy and proper relationships with the members of the opposite sex. However, a child who did not overcome the conflicts at that stage will end up having troubled relationships with the opposite sex (Larsen and Buss, 2009).
Sigmund Freud’s theory has several weaknesses. Firstly, personality cannot be developed only on the basis of sexuality. Erik Erikson also does not agree on the concept of basing personality development on sexual drive alone. Moreover, the stages of development are not supported by any scientific data but on case studies. Contrary to Freud’s theory that an individual cannot have the ego and superego from an early age, studies show that these entities are evident in children earlier than at the ages he suggested (Ewen, 1998).
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erikson also believes that personality development occurs in stages. However, he does not agree with Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages. He believes that personality development occurs as a result of social interaction with the environment. Through interaction with the environment, human beings develop an ego.
At each stage of development, an individual is concerned with getting competent. If one manages to go through a stage successfully, their ego will be boosted and they will develop a sense of competence. However, failure to manage the stage properly will result in a feeling of insufficiency. At each stage, an individual goes through a conflict that can either build or destroy their personality (Engler, 2008).
The first stage of personality development is that of trust or mistrust and occurs since a child is born up to when he/she attains the age of one year. At this stage the child is helpless and depends entirely on others to take care of him/her. The infant will develop feelings of either trust or mistrust depending on the care that he/she receives from the parents.
If the people taking care of the child are able to efficiently take care of the child, he/she will develop trust and will always feel secure and safe. However, if the parents of the child show rejection and neglect to the child, he/she will develop mistrust and will have feelings of insecurity. This child might develop depression as a child and this may go on even in adulthood (Larsen and Buss, 2009).
The next stage is when the children develop as sense to control the functions of the body and a sense of autonomy. This occurs between the ages of one and three. Children begin to make choices between food, clothes and toys. During this stage, a child can either develop a personality of autonomy or that of doubt or shame.
A child who exercises autonomy is always exploring the surrounding environment and trying to make new discoveries on his/her own. A child who develops feelings of doubt or shame is less confident and is less interested in exploring new surroundings. If a child successfully goes through this stage, he/she will develop feelings of security and confidence in future. Those who do not manage this stage well end up with feelings of insufficiency and doubt all their lives (Newman and Newman, 2007).
Before children begin going to school, they go through another stage where they can develop feelings of either initiative or guilt. This is usually between ages three and six. At this stage the children develop their personality by interacting with others through playing and other activities.
Those who develop feelings of initiative will tend to perform tasks to completion. However, children who develop a sense of guilt will be reluctant to express themselves and their interests and unwilling to try out challenging tasks. If a child manages through this stage, they will develop feelings of capability and a sense of leadership. Those who do not successfully go through this stage will end up feeling guilty, doubtful of their abilities, and devoid of inventiveness (Loevinger, 1997).
Between the age of five to eleven years, children go through a stage of industry or inferiority. Through interacting with others, children begin to take pride in their achievements and talents. Children who develop feelings of industry like taking responsibilities because they believe in their abilities. On the other hand, children who develop feelings of inferiority at this stage hate responsibilities because they doubt their ability in completing those assignments satisfactorily.
The parents, teachers, and other people can contribute to the development of feelings of either inferiority or industry. If children receive encouragement from their teachers and parents because of their abilities and achievements, they will develop feelings of proficiency and confidence in their abilities. However, those who do not receive any support from teachers or parents end up doubting their capability to succeed in life (Loevinger, 1997).
The next stage occurs during adolescence and individuals can either develop a sense of identity or confusion. This happens between ages 12 to 18. Individuals who feel a sense of identity will have a sense of direction in life and will be very sure about what they would like to become in life.
For this reason, they go through this stage with their minds focused on achieving that purpose and their self esteem will be high. However, individuals who feel a sense of confusion will lead a life devoid of purpose or direction and will not be sure about what they want to become in life.
Such individuals will not be aiming to achieve any goals in life and will be leading a life without any future plans. These individuals’ self esteem is likely to be low. At this stage, individuals discover themselves and if they get sufficient support, they develop a good sense of independence, self consciousness, and control. Those who do not successfully go through this stage will end up being unsure about their lives and will remain confused and insecure in future (Loevinger, 1997).
The next stage is early adulthood, between 18 to 35 years, where individuals start developing personal relationships. At this stage, people can either develop a sense of intimacy or that of isolation. People who manage to develop healthy relationships at this stage end up having secure and committed relationships in future.
These individuals will be able to form stable relationships that can end up in marriage. However, those who fail at this stage end up having poor relationships and feelings of loneliness, depression, and isolation. Such people will have very few friends and will find it difficult to be involved in serious relationships that could lead to marriage (Larsen and Buss, 2009).
When an individual enters adulthood, he/she can either develop a personality of generativity or stagnation. During this stage, people build their families and careers. A person who develops feelings of generativity will tend to be involved in some sort of productive work and will have an attitude of helping others.
An individual who experiences stagnation will not be engaged in productive work and will be reluctant to help others. People who are successful in their careers and family life will end up feeling productive since they are contributing to the society. However, those who do not succeed in their careers and family life will end up feeling fruitless and unproductive in life (Larsen and Buss, 2009).
The final stage of personality development according to Erikson occurs in old age. In this stage, individuals look back at how they have lived through their lives and may develop feelings of either despair or integrity. Individuals who look at their life and feel that they have accomplished their purpose develop feelings of honor and satisfaction and will have few or no regrets.
As they near their death, they feel at peace and feel that they have accomplished everything that they ever wanted to. Therefore, they do not fear to die as there is nothing that they would wish to change if they were given another chance. They are absolutely contented with the way they lived their lives. On the other hand, people who at this stage look back and feel that they have wasted their lives and have not accomplished their dreams will have regrets.
They will wish that they had lived their lives differently. Consequently, they will end up feeling bitter and desperate. They may develop a feeling that life is worthless. These people also fear death as they wish for another chance or more time to live so that they can do things differently and correct the mistakes that they made in the past (Loevinger, 1997).
Even though Erikson’s theory of personality development has enhanced people’s understanding of social development, it has some weaknesses. The theory is unclear and does not state the real causes of personality development. It does not give a clear explanation about the factors that make individuals to develop in various ways and the impact of each stage on an individual’s personality.
The theory also does not clearly explain the method of overcoming the crises at each stage and moving on to the next. It also does not state what an individual is supposed to do in order to successfully go through the problems experienced at each stage (Newman and Newman, 2007).
Moreover, all the stages do not match with the stages that all individuals go through in life. In some cultures, there is very little time between childhood and adulthood to discover one’s identity since the individuals are married off at an early age. In other communities, an individual has no freedom to make choices as most of them are made by the parents, for instance, choice of career or marriage partner (Newman and Newman, 2007).
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is clear that many theories have been invented to explain the stages that individuals go through in developing their personalities. Sigmund Freud felt that an individual goes through five stages that are influenced by the sexual drive. On the other hand, Erik Erikson differed with Freud’s theory and invented eight stages of personality development that are influenced by the interaction of an individual with the surrounding.
However, both theories have their shortcomings and have been criticized by other people. Both theories of personality development might differ but at least the two agree on some things; like the fact that personality does not develop at once but over time and in distinct stages.
Reference List
Engler, B. (2008). Personality Theories: An Introduction (8th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Ewen, R. B. (1998). Personality, a Topical Approach: Theories, Research, Major Controversies, and Emerging Findings. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Larsen, R.J., and Buss, D. M. (2009). Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge about Human Nature (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Loevinger, J. (1997). Stages of personality development. Handbook of personality psychology, (pp. 199-208).
Newman, B.M., and Newman, P.R. (2007). Theories of Human Development. USA: Routledge.