Literature Review
The Causes of City Centre Decline
It can be rather difficult to determine the particular reasons why some city centres and areas go into decline and the others do not. The causes of urban decay may be various and multiple. Many researchers have focused on this issue in their studies. As noticed by Hasse et al. (2014), the problem is usually approached based on the following three aspects: a) the identification of the causes of decline; b) the description of mechanisms according to which the cities shrink; and c) the discussion of responses.
Due to the complexity of the issue, many researchers choose to explore its various dimensions working within particular disciplines. As a result, the body of literature that would cover the problem fully is rather small. Exploring the nature and causes of city centre decline, Moses and Gale (2001) propose reviewing it within eight different dimensions – social, cultural or historical, physical, political, behavioural, design, economic, and environmental. For better clarity, each of the dimensions will be presented in a separate section with a heading.
Social Dimension
According to Clark (1989), urban decay occurs under the influence of powerful and inevitable social processes; unfortunately, the life-cycle of a city centre has its stages that gradually destroy Western cities. As a result of the decline, many big cities have a tendency to lose their population (Clark 1989; ADA 2013). This phenomenon is currently characterised as “the white flight”, the movement of population from the city centre to the suburbs that impacts the demographic composition of the population (in terms of race, ethnicity, and social status) along with its size (Frey 1979). The change in the population density, composition, and size along with the attitudes of the residents to the area are recognised as the key factors that enable the decline (Hasse et al. 2014; Moses & Gale 2001). That way, the residents are to be educated about the processes that speed up the decay of the city centre and encouraged to participate in support programs for the area (Burayidi 2001).
Urban decay has a progressive character. Its development gradually forces the representatives of the middle class out of the city while the population that remains is disadvantaged with rather low-income (McCarty 1997). The reduced paying capacity of the residents eventually led to the decline of high-quality maintenance services that prevent the living areas from decay (Moses & Gale 2001). Over time, the concentration of impoverished and homeless population resulted in the downfall of the community power, the decline of the vital services, waste of resources and the decay of multiple districts (Shore 1995; McCarthy 1997; Gibson 2004). As a result, an effective method of addressing urban decay from the social perspective is the creation of responsible communities with considerate attitudes to their areas and environments, and a sufficient level of income to support the district in which they dwell (The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2013).
Economic Dimension
In terms of the correlation between the city centre decline and the economic decay, the phenomenon of industrialisation is commonly considered as the primary contributor to the tendency. At the same time, there is an opinion that urban decay, in fact, was first facilitated in the late 18th – early 19th century, the time when industrialisation was starting to grow and develop. There is no doubt that the process of industrialisation produces a multitude of different effects on the areas of the city it covers. The deterioration of the city centre is also known to be actively facilitated by the economic activities such as disinvestment and mass unemployment (Clark 1989; Leinberger 2005; Hasse et al. 2014). Moreover, the contemporary world has generated some new forms of commerce. For instance, today there are hyper-markets, the shopping centres that are usually situated in the business districts of the suburban areas and far away from the urban locations that used to be known as the centres of shopping; as a result, the modern buyers are drawn away from the city centres and the investors and business makers follow them (Alwattar 2013; Balsas 2007; Leinberger 2005). In addition, as pointed out by Leinberger (2005), the urban business makers have shown interest in the exploration of the suburban client markets for a while now. This may be related to the phenomenon of the white flight common in the United States.
This movement of the wealthier communities to the suburban areas reevaluates the location of the capitals. As a result, it is more profitable to do business in the districts where the population with a higher level of income dwells. As the large shopping malls and hyper-markets began to be placed near the suburban areas, the value of land and property there grew; at the same time, the city centres have experienced a decrease in value because compared to the prevalently white middle-class spenders have a much better paying capacity than the residents of the city centres who are mainly people of colour (Isenberg, 2004). That way, the city centres along with their population have been economically neglected and depowered. In turn, the residents were pushed to the point where they had to embrace criminal lifestyles in order to make money and survive. Consequently, the contemporary city centres are known for such features as high rates of criminal activity, polluted air, decaying public and residential buildings, and a shift in ethnic composition; due to these factors, the citizens prefer not to live in these districts (Moses & Gale 2001). From the perspectives of the business makers, these areas are just as unattractive as for the individuals looking for accommodation. City centres have primarily impoverished populations with low spending capacity, and the buildings there are not in the condition satisfactory for doing business successfully (Milder 1987). In order to regain the attention of the potential buyers and renters, the city centres are to have some characteristics that would make them more attractive (Milder 1987; Alskait 1999).
Political Dimension
Approaching the causes of the urban decline from the political perspective, Clark (1989) maintains that the decay appears due to the weakening political power in the central areas due to its decentralisation. The local budget shrinks along with the political authority and eventually leads to the decline in the quality and quantity of services (Clark 1989). Besides, according to Hasse et al. (2014), the radical political changes along with political conflict are the most common and important determiners of the urban development. One more significant impact on the urban development and decay is presented by the armed political conflicts such as international and civil wars (Fearon 2007). Attempting to take control over particular areas the sides of the conflicts end up turning them into battlefields and destroying their infrastructure and buildings. The Second World War was an example of such influence that led to the complete ruination of the centres of many cities such as Bristol that was destroyed by ongoing bombing and planning ideologies; as a result of the destruction, the areas has experienced a rapid loss of the population (Tallon & Bromley 2004). Namely, the city of Bristol underwent displacement of the population, clearances of slums, and devaluation of properties that resulted in the collapse of the housing market (Tallon & Bromley 2004). That way, city planning and regulations are powerful contributors to the urban decay as they may prioritise the competing suburbs and other district and neglecting the central areas, especially when they have historical sites (Alskait, 1999).
Many scholars agree that the participation of the public in the matters of planning and decision-making is viewed as one of the most crucial aspects of the shift in attitudes of the population to the living area (Arnstein, 1969; Choguill, 1996; Vural, 2014; Egercioğlu et al., 2016). The disregarding attitudes of the public are formed when the city authorities fail to provide them with enough power to influence the policy-making in their districts and support their infrastructure preventing it from the decay. As a demonstration of the dynamics mentioned above, Arnstein (1969) has created a scheme called the participation ladder. It is comprised of eight steps that are manipulation, therapy, informing, consultation, placation, partnership, delegation and citizen control (the steps are listed as placed in the scheme from the bottom to the top). The lowest two steps (manipulation and therapy) indicate the public non-participation. The next three are marked as “Tokenism”, and the top three are “Citizen power”. That way, the residents’ opinion is to play an important role in the city planning policies.
However, as indicated by Choguill (2008), in the 1970’s the British city planners were extremely dissatisfied with their obligation to consult the local residents as to their vision on the planning and policies. It looks like back then, it was more convenient for the planners to operate based on autocratic decision-making style. Today, the democratic approach is perceived as the most productive way out. Of course, democracy has its flaws. For instance, many planners notice, that making certain decisions requires the involved groups of individuals to have a high level of knowledge and expertise, and that is why this aspect of work should be given to the professionals but not to the public (Mahmoud & Arima 2012). Besides, the opinions of the local residents may differ which could cause conflicts and disorder, and eventually lead to the delay in the implementation of the plan. Recent studies of this issue propose using some alternative approaches that rely on the employment of the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) (Mahmoud and Arima, 2012). This approach would be more impartial, practical, and scientific. The EPA (2013) supports the idea that all the members of the local communities are to be given a chance to take part in the area planning and improvement. That way, the outcomes of these activities would become much more positive.
Cultural/ Historical Dimensions
Leinberger (2005) points out that historically, the centres of the cities play an important role in terms of the turnaround plans of the whole area. Moreover, the author discusses the impact the failed attempts of the city centre revitalisation may have on the city saying that it may take decades to overcome them. In fact, According to Leinberger (2005), the community would not be able to move on to the new and positive changes without a new team of leaders with a fresh outlook and not pressurised by the previous failures.
In his book Slums, Urban Decline and Revitalisation, Yadav (1987) says that the cultural dimensions of the city decline can be demonstrated using the centres of some the largest cities which have experienced declines due to the intercultural conflicts on their territories. For instance, the centre of Beirut, Lebanon has undergone a civil conflict due to the loss of cultural identity and the clash of ideologies that resulted in a civil war in Lebanon that lasted for fifteen years since 1975 to 1991 (Ragab 2011).
Design Dimensions
A multitude of the Middle Eastern cities are planned in an inefficient and incomprehensive manner due to the rapid growth of the population and urban expansion (Alskait 1999; Dagenhart 1996). That way, the development of architectural projects and places of attraction in these areas is complicated by the inefficient infrastructure. Based on this information one may conclude that the city centres are to be approached taking into consideration the future growth; in other words, smart planning is more important than outstanding architecture (Hudnit 1998). Such approach would result in better accessibility as problems with roads and communications are typical for big poorly planned cities. These issues include inadequate parking, traffic problems, and difficulties with reach for the public transportation systems (Alskait 1999; Isenberg 2004; Wong et al. 2009).
Behavioural Dimension
Unsafe behaviour such as criminal activity weakens the urban areas and leads to their decay. Gibson (2004) emphasises that safety is crucial for any individual as a characteristic of a living area worthy of the investment of time and money. Moses and Gale (2001) state that the high level of insecurity due to criminal activity rates is the cause of the population loss in the city centres. However, domestic criminal activity is not the only threat to the security of the urban areas. Glaeser and Shapiro (2001) notice that thirteen million square feet of office space have been destroyed during the terrorist attacks in New York. Moreover, the city of Detroit is another example where violence has forced the population out of the city centre (Yadav 1987).
Physical Dimension
Urban decay indicates the figurative outflow of resources along with actual destruction. City centre decline is characterised by the ruination of the buildings, living areas, public facilities, infrastructure, roads, and streets. These physical manifestations of decay cause the loss of population and investment 9 Moses & Gale 2001).
The physical decline is represented by slums, deterioration of the areas and building, and the progressively worsening decay (Yadav, 1987). The additional effects are vandalism, lack of maintenance, and visually unpleasant signs of decline (Moses & Gale 2001). Due to these characteristics, suburbs are often preferred by the residents to the city centres (Sohmer and Lang, 2004). Therefore, Moses and Gale (2001) note that the lack of confidence among the investors, business makers, banks, property owners, and developers contributing to the loss of capital appears due to physical dimensions of urban decline.
Environmental Dimension
Natural disasters such as earthquakes, tornados, hurricanes or floods are powerful contributors to the city centre decline (Hasse et al. 2014). These dangers may result from many artificial factors such as climate change issues and environmental pollution. Also, poorly planned protection systems aggravate the effects of the natural hazards and endanger the local population.