Introduction
Since multiculturalism have become synonymous aspects of society at the present, psychological practices tend to respond to the diverse consumer and cultural demographics by attempting to examine the manner in biases, stereotypes, and heuristics develop in certain segments of the population. One attempt at answering this question comes in the form of arguments utilizing the psychological term “Speciesism” which is based on the belief that the group or a particular individual belongs to, is inherently superior to all other groups.
This is more commonly known as the belief in gender and racial superiority resulting in the development of biases. In attempting to examine such an issue, this paper will examine the concept of psychometric testing procedures and whether they can be effectively utilized as a means of properly examining the biases, stereotypes, and heuristics of particular populations.
Properties of psychometrically-sound measures
The field of psychometrics primarily concerns itself with the various theories and techniques connected to the process of psychological measurement. This can entail aspects related to biases, stereotypes, and heuristics or in other words the innate behavioral and personality traits that impact the manner in which a person acts and views the world.
It is based on this that psychometrics concerns itself with the creation and validation of diverse types of psychological measurement instruments that are used in a variety of studies that examine the manner in which a person’s development, behavior and personality impact the way they act/react to the world around them as well as affect the manner in which they choose to express themselves.
Basically, such testing procedures allows researchers to better understand a patient and enables them to answer specific questions that were brought up during the initial process of psychiatric evaluation.
The value of psychometric testing procedures lie in their ability to arrive at a clear diagnosis (such an assertion is question by studies such as those by Hallberg et al. (2008) since they state that such tests cannot be considered 100% accurate and further testing is needed in order to arrive at a correct conclusion), assist in the treatment and discharge of patients, act as tools for examining prognostic and predictive function of individuals on a cases to cases basis as well as allows researchers to evaluate the relationship between the brain and behavior.
It is based on this that psychometrically-sound measures utilize the following principles so as to provide evidence for the necessity of their continued usage in psychological testing procedures:
Reliability – the concept of reliability is psychometric testing procedures is based on the consistency and accuracy of a test over small or large population sets. This means that when utilizing testing procedures such as the “test re-test” method, the split half procedure, or the same test yet in an alternative form, the testing procedures should produce the same results.
As explained by Williams et al. (2011), the necessity of reliability as a factor in psychometric testing is due to the need for accurate results that can be relied upon to produce the same outputs.
For example, if a factor were asked to produce red bags yet produced 60% red bags and 40% blue bags, while it may be true that it still produced red bags, the fact that blue bags were still produced despite the need for red bags reveals that the processes utilized in the factory are unreliable and cannot be relied upon by suppliers.
The same can be said for various psychometric testing procedures wherein different institutions need to have tests that produce results that do not vary based on the type of procedure implemented.
b.) Validity – the concept of validity stems from whether a test is capable of measuring what it was intended to measure. Wocial et al. (2013) explains that all psychometric tests have an intended outcome in that they are meant to create a specific measure/personality examination of a particular individual resulting in their placement under a specific category that the scores from the test would classify them under.
As such, the concept of validity for psychometric tests is based on the predictive outcome of the testing procedures wherein the individual being examined would fall under the concurrent categories set forth by the test. In such a case this means that the content, construct, and criterion of the test should have an outcome that, when tested against multiple individuals with the same personality predispositions, would have the same or at least similar resulting outcomes.
If a test continually has varied or different outcomes with multiple attempts by the same individual, this calls into question the validity of the psychometric methods were utilized in the creation of the testing procedures.
c.) Standardization – the concept of standardization when it comes to psychometric principles refers to the process of collective normative data from the population that was being tested through the use of the same procedures, processes, and methods that were utilized in the same testing procedures under controlled conditions.
This means that when administering a particular psychometric testing procedure, the processes that were utilized can in effect be replicated by other researchers and institutions under the same conditions resulting in the same results. The necessity of standardization is due to the fact that if an experiment is not replicable under the same conditions, this calls into question the validity of the procedures utilized during the original testing procedures as well as the outcome of the tests.
Measuring Stereotypes and Biases
Two of the current processes in examining stereotypes and biases is to utilize explicit or implicit methods of measurement. The inherent problem with explicit methods of measure is that it relies heavily on self-reports and observed behaviors. This is similar to the case of self-attribution wherein self attribution can be summed up as a means of attributing or explaining one’s own behavior and its potential outcome through perception and evaluation.
Such a method of examination proposes that the attribution an individual makes about a particular event or outcome is based on internal or external factors. In the case of internal factors this is defined as the intrinsic personal factors that influence a individuals behavior such as their feelings, behavioral traits, cognitive abilities, etc.
Thus, when an when an individual is attempting to determine what are the antecedents and resulting consequences of their behavior they conduct an examination of such traits either through external observations made by other people or through memory this is due to the fact that people in general do not have “access” so to speak to their internal states and, as such, need to infer such traits through observations or an examination of the context of the situations in which such behavioral traits arise.
Studies such as those by Göras et al. (2013) explain that this creates issues in terms of observational biases as well as misinterpretations. On the other end of the spectrum, implicit measures are not consciously directed and, in fact, are assumed to be automatic which calls into question whether sufficient standardization can be applied to such a process given the potential variability in responses.
Checklists
Another method that is utilized in order to examine stereotypes and biases is the use of checklist such as those seen in the Katz and Braly procedure.
However, an examination of the study of Dennis & Evans (1996) showed that the inherent issue with utilizing checklists as a means of examining research subjects, is the fact that group characteristics change over time resulting in the processes and biases that went into creating a particular checklist in the first place being inapplicable to the same group 10 or 15 years in the future.
For example, during the 1980s to the late 1990s the acceptance of the LGBT community and gay marriage was still considered to be fairly low with a considerable level of discrimination continuing to exist. Thus, checklists that examined a group’s susceptibility towards particular biases against the gay community would utilize pre-existing social concepts as the basis for the analysis.
In 2013 however, it can be seen that gay marriage and acceptability of homosexuals is a continuing and growing trend with a considerable level of increased social acceptance. It is based on this that a checklist developed in the 1980s to examine social biases would be inapplicable at the present due to the growing changes in society.
Problems with utilizing psychometrically-sound measurement in measuring biases, stereotypes, and heuristics
Young et al. (2006) states that the problem with utilizing psychometrically-sound measurement in measuring biases, stereotypes, and heuristics is the fact that such aspects are more socially based than they are behaviorally or psychologically based resulting in the possibility of change within a relatively short amount of time.
Young et al. (2006) points to the concept of irrational exuberance as the cornerstone of his argument regarding the problems with psychometrically-sound measurement and biases, stereotypes, and heuristics which are based on socially perceived behaviors. Irrational exuberance can be defined as the process by which people base their actions on the perceived notions and behaviors of other people.
It is done due to what Warshawsky et al. (2013) defines as an individual’s innate desire to “fit in” so speak. It is deemed irrational due to the behavioral outcome showed often not coinciding with an individual’s innate personality or behavioral predisposition.
For example, during the early 1900s, there were many instances where there was a significant level of anti-gay sentiment within many communities, however, it was noted by Senol-Durak et al. (2011) that such sentiment was only expressed based on the desire to conform to current popular culture notions of social acceptability wherein many of those that were “anti-gay” did not in fact care whether a person was gay or not, rather, they mere wanted to conform to the general notion so as to prevent social ostracization.
It is based on this that Maddern (2012) explains that the results of psychometric tests may in fact contain considerable false-positives in terms of accuracy due to what people perceive is the necessary type of attitude to depict in society at the present.
For example, an examination of current trends in media representation of illegal immigration have shown a trend wherein the media largely does not portray illegal immigration in a positive light.
Instead of featuring stories indicating how immigrants risked nearly everything in order to find salvation in the U.S. they instead feature stories on how illegal immigrants are a drain on our countries resources, how crimes are commonly committed by people of Mexican and Latin American decent and how American jobs are going to illegal aliens willing to work for less.
Such stories have in fact influenced public opinion to be distinctly against policies which allow a degree of leniency when dealing with illegal immigrants. Studies examining this current trend even state that Mexican and Latin American minorities are being unfairly targeted and placed under suspicion by various police districts due to their ethnic origin rather than any perceived crime that was committed (Case Study: It’s about respect and appreciation, 2008).
All of this is indicative of a trend that American society as well as the U.S. government are not willing to take an accepting stance on illegal immigration but rather are seeking harsher measures.
Such attitudes can actually be connected to the various reports and news stories featured by the media which in effect vilify the concept of illegal immigration and add fuel to the fire resulting in increasing harsher measures being taken by states and communities alike (Case Study: It’s about respect and appreciation, 2008).
The end result of such actions has been stated by Benedict & Walton (2012) as resulting in a distinctly negative social reaction towards illegal immigrants in general despite none of these illegal immigrants actually doing anything bad to those with such views. This shows how public opinion can easily sway opinions and necessitates the creation of positions which may not necessarily reflect and individual’s honest opinion.
As such, tests measuring biases, stereotypes, and heuristics utilizing this method has the potential of creating results which are far from factual or based on an actually representation of an individual’s behavior or personality manifesting itself into a particular form of bias. While it may be true that the testing procedures utilized can be standardized, the fact is that there are issues related to the validity and reliability of the responses.
For example, one of the cornerstones of psychometric testing are the concepts of reliable and valid responses wherein if an individual is tested at a particular point in time, they would be able to produce the same results when tested a short time later.
However, due to the “fickleness” of irrational exuberance wherein changes in social norms can occur abruptly (i.e. acceptance of gay marriage as a social norm) this can similarly affect an individual’s biases, stereotypes, and heuristics due to their desire to conform with socially acceptable behavior (Lorenz, 2013).
This means that an individual tested for being biased against gay people last year may showcase a different response the year after gay marriage becomes an acceptable social practice a year later (Needham et al., 2005).
While psychometric testing does take into consideration changes in research subjects over a given period of time, the abrupt changes brought about through irrational exuberance is far too quick and thus results in a considerable degree of questioning regarding the accuracy of psychometrically-sound measurement in measuring biases, stereotypes, and heuristics.
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