Smallpox
When exploring history it is often very easy to look at decisive moments in history where the actions of either a few or of many have changed the course of a nation. In these moments when battles have been won or lost or great leaders have made stirring speeches the effect of germs, parasites and viruses are overlooked. These small organisms have been shown to have as much of an effect on the course of history as the wars and great leaders have.
Through this series of lectures, the effect of three of these diseases will be examined in order to determine the cultural, sociological, and historical impact that they had on America. These three illnesses will be traced from their first appearance in the United States to modern times. Due to the effect of some of the illnesses cures or vaccines have been created. In other cases, the research into the illness has spurred research into new directions resulting in other medical and cultural advances. The diseases that will be examined include smallpox, yellow fever, and AIDS.
The effect of these illnesses had on the culture and politics of America becomes more interesting when studying the continuing effects of these diseases. Because of the susceptibility of the native population to European diseases the European settlers were able to uproot their cultures and replace those traditions with the European culture and religion (Oldstone, 4). These illnesses interfered with the formation of Canada and the United States making it impossible for these two nations to join into one country. The fear of the illnesses resulted in America being able to complete the Louisiana Purchase resulting in one of the greatest western expansions avoiding a conflict with France (Oldstone, 4). Additionally, the continued importation of African Americans into America allowed African viruses to flourish in a new environment often with a devastating impact (Oldstone, 4).
The first illness that will be examined is smallpox. This disease is a serious and sometimes fatal infection. Due to the nature of the illness, no treatment other than vaccination exists for curing smallpox.
Smallpox was first introduced to the Americas through the Spanish explorers who arrived in 1519 (Harrison, 73). The vessels that arrived were carrying slaves from Africa who had no immunity to the disease. When this disease was introduced to the Native Americans with no immunity to the disease created an epidemic that resulted in their inability to defend their homes from the European settlers (Harrison, 73).
The Aztec culture had a strong belief in the power of their gods. When the Aztecs were able to drive the Spanish out of what is currently Mexico City the smallpox epidemic began. The epidemic was responsible for the death of many of the Aztecs, but that was not the worse part of the situation (Oldstone, 4). Because the Aztecs were dying but they saw that the Spanish were protected from this illness created a form of psychological warfare. The Aztec believed that their gods did not have the ability to protect them from the gods of the Spanish. Due to this occurrence, the Aztec population experienced additional demoralization resulting in the exploitation of Native Americans and Mexicans by the Spanish, and the destruction of their culture (Oldstone, 4).
An additional reason that this disease was as devastating as it was when it traveled through the Aztec and Inca Empires is that these cultures were based on a hierarchal system. Due to this when the members of the ruling family died there was no clear leader to lead them through this period of uncertainty (Harrison, 74).
It is believed that if the Aztec had not been engaged in a battle on two fronts; one against the Spanish and the other against infectious diseases with no prior immunity the Aztec culture would have managed to repel the Spanish (Harrison, 73).
The Native American societies were unprepared for the combination of acts that were rapidly overtaking their culture. While it is difficult to diagnose the diseases that were responsible for the various epidemics ravaging the Americas the distinctive disease pattern of smallpox makes it possible to track. Because smallpox leaves a distinctive rash researchers have been able to find first-hand accounts of an illness that arrived with the Spanish and created red sores that caused either death or permanent disfigurement up to and including blindness (Harrison, 75).
The effects of smallpox can be seen again in 1763. During this time the French and Indian war was being fought and in an effort to rob the French of their allies among the Native American tribes the British sent blankets that were infected with the smallpox virus. Doing so resulted in one of the first documented cases of biological warfare.
The fear of smallpox and the effect that it could have on a military force caused George Washington to order his troops to undergo one of the earliest forms of vaccination against smallpox known as variolation in 1777. This was done to protect the troops from naturally occurring epidemics as well as against epidemics created by the British through biological warfare (Harrison, 76).
From the 1770s to the 1800s research was performed on finding additional ways to combat the smallpox epidemics. During this research, a vaccine was developed. By the 1800s the vaccination process had become a common practice among communities in North America. In 1801 a concentrated effort was made to provide the vaccine to Native Americans. Even with the vaccination in place outbreaks of smallpox still existed. In one of the later outbreaks in 1863, Abraham Lincoln had been infected by the illness and was combating the early stages of the infection while delivering the Gettysburg Address (Harrison, 76).
With the continued effort to vaccinate the world’s population the World Health Organization was able to declare that the smallpox virus had been destroyed in 1979. Currently, there are two locations in the world located somewhere in the United States and Russia that have access to the smallpox virus. The genetic material of the virus is being stored in case of a terrorist attack that utilizes the smallpox virus as a weapon of war (Harrison, 78).
The effect of smallpox on the culture and society of individuals living in America has been immense. However, the elimination of smallpox through trial and error offers hope when researching other deadly diseases that the solution for them can be discovered as well. Currently, the menace of smallpox has been eliminated from the world’s population with only enough stockpiled to provide the means of recreating the vaccine in case the disease is used in a terrorist attack. This concludes today’s lecture. Please join us again on Tuesday to learn about the effect experienced in America due to yellow fever.
Yellow Fever
In the previous lecture, we discussed the effect that smallpox had on the formation of modern-day America. In this lecture, we will be examining yellow fever and the impact that this illness had on the social and cultural growth of America as well as the advent of modern medicine that was the result of this illness.
The effect of these illnesses had on the culture and politics of America becomes more interesting when studying the continuing effects of these diseases. Because of the susceptibility of the native population to European diseases the European settlers were able to uproot their cultures and replace those traditions with the European culture and religion (Oldstone, 4). These illnesses interfered with the formation of Canada and the United States making it impossible for these two nations to join into one country. The fear of the illnesses resulted in America being able to complete the Louisiana Purchase resulting in one of the greatest western expansions as well as avoiding a military conflict with France (Oldstone, 4). Additionally, the continued importation of African Americans into America allowed African viruses to flourish in a new environment often with a devastating impact (Oldstone, 4).
Yellow Fever was brought to the Americas from Africa through the transportation of the slaves. While the slaves were transported the viruses were able to mix with the European diseases creating a dangerous cocktail of illnesses that included dysentery, malaria, smallpox, and yellow fever (Harrison, 79). The effect of these illnesses on the native population was devastating. With the destruction of the native cultures, the Europeans began to increase the number of slaves from Africa to the Americas. This was done because it was believed that these individuals were better able to withstand the illnesses and diseases associated with plantations in tropical areas (Oldstone, 4). The importation of these individuals combined with their poor nutrition resulted in the increase of yellow fever in America (Oldstone, 4).
The areas of cleared land that were supposed to have been used for farming created more areas for mosquitoes to breed resulting in an increase in yellow fever. In the early 17th century up to 40 percent of the new European colonists died within several years of their arrival to the Americas (Harrison, 88). In the Southern states, the death rate was significantly higher than was experienced in the Northern states during that time (Harrison, 88).
An example of how an outbreak of yellow fever was able to change the political system of the United States occurred in 1793. At this time the city of Philadelphia experienced one of the first outbreaks of yellow fever since 1762. During this outbreak, the estimates of the dead ranged from 4,000 to 5,000 (Harrison, 99). During that time there was a shirt in the politics of America and the division between the Jeffersonian Republicans and the Hamiltonian Federalists increases. The Federalists blamed the epidemic on the arrival of refugees from the island of St. Dominique after the slave revolt of 1793 (Harrison, 99). However Republican physicians did not believe in the theory that the illness had been imported from the islands. They believed that the illness was the result of the unclean conditions around the docks of the city. The debate over the origins of yellow fever continued until the creation of a vaccine in 1936 (Harrison, 109). The Federalists used the controversy over the source of the illness to back the people’s demands for quarantine measures and the limit of individuals allowed entering the country from a French location (Harrison, 99). This is believed to have been an attempt by the Federalists to create a strong sense of national identity.
An additional impact that yellow fever had on politics was the Louisiana Purchase. During the period of colonization, other European countries were looking to expand their empires into the Americas and the Caribbean. This included the French who expanded into Haiti. Learning from the experience of the Spanish who were using imported slave labor to work their territory in other parts of the Caribbean and the Americas, France imported a large number of slaves to their plantations in Haiti (Oldstone, 5). This worked until the 1900s when the slave population revolted forcing Napoleon to send a large number of troops to regain control of the island. The European soldiers had no immunity to yellow fever and the majority of them died due to the combination of the infections and military activities (Oldstone, 5). In response to a large number of deaths, Napoleon was unwilling to risk additional troops to defend the additional French Territory in America resulting in America being able to complete the Louisiana Purchase (Oldstone, 5).
Outbreaks of yellow fever continued throughout the port cities of America especially New Orleans. New Orleans experienced outbreaks of the illness throughout the 18 and 1900’s. In 1905 the last epidemic of yellow fever was experienced in New Orleans and Louisiana. During this outbreak, an attempt was made to control the number of mosquitoes. Due to the measures undertaken during this time the number of deaths was not as numerous as earlier outbreaks.
In 1936 a vaccine against yellow fever was developed by researchers in New York. The vaccination was tested and proved successful at protecting individuals from the illness however by using human serum as a primary component of the vaccine caused an increase in the rates of hepatitis. It was not until 1942 when a safer version of the vaccine was developed and began to be administered.
The outbreak in Louisiana in 1905 was the last outbreak in America; however, there have still been individual cases that appear. In 1996 two United States citizens died from yellow fever infections. The last reported case of an individual dying from yellow fever was an individual who had returned from a vacation in Brazil in 2002.
Through the advent of modern medical practices and vaccines, the impact of yellow fever on the current population of the United States has been minimized. Unlike smallpox, the World Health Organization has not been able to declare it eradicated because it still affects individuals in tropical locations where the vaccination procedure has not been mandated by the government.
This concludes today’s lecture. Please join us again next Tuesday to learn about the effect experienced in America due to AIDS.
AIDS
In the previous two lectures, we explored the effect of both smallpox and yellow fever in conjunction with American history and the cultural, sociological impact that were the result of these illness.. By tracing the illness from their first appearance in the United States to modern times it is possible to see the wide ranging effects these diseases had on the formation of the history of the United States. Due to the effect of some of the illness cures or vaccines have been created. In other cases the research into the illness has spurred research into new directions resulting in other medical and cultural advances.
Individuals from this generation have not witnessed the level of destruction that a disease has caused. The level of protection that individuals in this generation have experienced is due to the ability of vaccinations and access to better health care. One of the largest health concerns facing individuals today is the threat of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (Sherman, Plagues, 89).
AIDS was first discovered in America in 1981. It was originally believed to be only a concern for members of the same sex community. By 1986 there were 60,000 reported cases in the United States resulting in 30,000 deaths (Sherman, Plagues, 89). President Reagan requested that the surgeon general to prepare a report to the American people about AIDS. At this time there were no drugs or vaccines that would assist in protecting the American public because of this there had to be an increase in the level of awareness of the American population in how to protect themselves from contracting this illness.
The belief that sexually transmitted diseases was a just punishment for engaging in behaviors that were outside of the norm of society. This behavior has been seen when examining other sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis. While syphilis was a much larger in the Victorian era then today the attitudes of individuals in modern America echo those feelings. When a group of individuals did not conform to the standards that were expected of them, being afflicted with this type of illness was a just punishment for their behavior (Sherman, Plagues, 98). When AIDS was first introduced to the public that same mentality that was experienced during the Victorian era was expressed by the American population when confronted when individuals that had contracted the AIDS virus. In order to combat this mentality; a campaign to educate the American population that non-sexual behaviors could result in the contraction of the AIDS virus was started (Sherman, Plagues, 98).
The danger of HIV or AIDS is that it results in the patients immune system loses the ability to fight off common infections. Due to this loss of the individual’s immunity the cause of death is the result of opportunistic diseases. With the increase of individuals who are infected with HIV or AIDS has caused an increase in the number of reported cases of tuberculosis (TB) (Sherman, Plagues, 126).
Over the past thirty years major advances have been made in finding ways to provide additional protection to individuals from HIV and AIDS. Additional medications have been discovered that assist in increasing the immune systems of patients who have been infected with the HIV virus. These medications are being disseminated throughout the world, because this is a world wide epidemic that has the potential of creating the same amount of devastation that smallpox and yellow fever caused several centuries ago.
In conclusion of today’s lecture I would like to reiterate that smallpox, yellow fever and AIDS have assisted in the formation of American society as we see it today. By examining these diseases such as smallpox and yellow fever it shows that a disease can affect the lives of an entire population for decades. When the disease is presented at a vital moment can affect the outcome of a war, change the way a country allows individuals to immigrate and settle in a new location and how individuals who are ill are described by the mainstream society. The effect of a disease or a combination of diseases can affect a society can also create beneficial therapies such as new ways of protecting individuals of the society that are well while protecting the freedom of the individuals who reside in the society (18).
References
Harrison, Mark. Disease and the Modern World, 1500 to the Present Day. Polity Press, Malden MA. 2004.
Oldstone, Michael B.A. Viruses, Plagues, and History. University Press, New York, New York. 1998.
Sherman, Irwin. Twelve Diseases that Changed Our World. ASM Press, Washington, DC. 2007.
Sherman, Irwin. The Power of Plagues. ASM Press, Washington, DC. 2006.