The Effects of Mass Media Glorifying Crime and Criminal Lifestyle Essay (Critical Writing)

Introduction

Crime has been an inherent element of popular mass media since the inception of feature films, and later television shows that attracted hundreds of millions of viewers over the decades. From the earliest shows, the themes and patterns embedded into the fictional media would dominate the medium. In this media, someone commits a criminal act, one which is usually thrilling or violent, and someone else is left to pick up the pieces or solve them. Crime has and will dominate popular media, ranging from the traditional police and detective shows/movies to documentaries, and more recently the ‘true crime’ genre or psychological thrillers attempting to tell the story from the perspective of the criminal or understand their motivations (VanArendonk, 2019). Of course, there are also various types of crimes, such as the sickening violence of a serial killer to the financial and political crimes which allow for lavish lifestyles and power – each having some sort of representation in modern media.

The simplest explanation for the popularity of crime in media is that people are attracted to it because it represents all things that are forbidden. It is a psychological exploration of the dark imagination or desires of the human mind – aspects that are alluring and extremely sensational. It allows people to imagine the hypothetical of how they would feel and act if they were to murder or rob a bank. Usually, the more heinous from a personal ethical perspective as well as social standards, the more alluring it is. The motivations are complex, combining both fascination (often with death and destruction) similar to that when people are drawn to watch natural disasters or car wrecks, combined with the thrills described above, a guilty pleasure. Popular media exists in its forms as entertainment which allows one to experience the emotions such as fear, horror, and to some extent, arousal, in a controlled environment (Bonn, 2016).

Psychological and Social Impacts of Media

As discussed later, one of the most persistent academic debates is whether mass media causes any potential deviant, criminal, or antisocial behavior. There is a consensus that media has some influence on people’s behavior, not necessarily on crime but in terms of social interactivity or personal perceptions for example. This is known as effects research, stemming from two primary theories of mass society theory and behaviorism. Despite stemming from different disciplines of sociology and psychology, the two theories inherently suggest that human nature is unstable and is highly susceptible to external influence (Jewkes, 2011).

Mass society theory has its origins in post-WWII when society was highly vulnerable and fragmented, and masses of common people were characterized by a lack of individuality and alienation from moral or ethical values. Mass media was seen as an aid to people’s well-being in difficult circumstances, but also became an instrument of influencing thought and driving people either towards or away from certain political or economic actions. Meanwhile, behaviorism is a psychological model developed by J.B. Watson in the early 20th century, suggesting that individual identity is shaped by the response to external environments, forming recognizable patterns of behaviors that could be observed. Mass media is such a significant element of modern lives, that it becomes an influential external environment of some sort (Jewkes, 2011).

Effects research of media influence on behavior is also known as the hypodermic syringe model since the relationship between media and audiences is conceptualized as a mechanistic process that ‘injects’ values, information, and ideas into the passive receiver, producing direct effects which influence thoughts and actions. There is a famous case where H.G. Wells was reading his famous novel War of the Worlds on broadcast radio, leading some people to believe that it was a real event and causing mass panic. Although metaphoric, the case provides significant support for the belief that modern media can exert significant influence, both positive and harmful, which can have profound social consequences and psychological effects (Jewkes, 2011).

Associations with Real-World Criminal Activity

There is significant anecdotal evidence about crimes that have been inspired by mass media and popular culture. However, there is limited empirical evidence to explain the influence between media and criminal behavior at the individual level. However, researchers and experts generally agree that mass media does maintain a powerful influence on behavior. Due to the outreach of mass media, it can reach a larger pool of individuals, including those at risk or who grow up in environments where crime is commonplace and easy to enter. There are also cultural impacts to consider that have been associated with imitative effects of violent behavior, such as mass shootings. For researchers, in the context of how mass media has contributed to crime is less of the question of how a media form causes behavior but rather how the influences motivate and shape the criminal behavior. In the postmodern society, criminal events, identities, and styles take shape in a media-saturated environment where motivation is drawn from the representation of crime and social cues are evolved from said perceptions (Helfgott, 2018).

Nevertheless, the question of the influence of media coverage on violent crimes and crime styles remains controversial. According to Rios (2018), two popular theories have been used to explain the potential correlation: The General Aggression Model and the Self-Determination and Uses and Gratifications theory. The General Aggression Model is also known as the ‘trigger theory’ suggests that exposure to violent crimes, even in media form, can fundamentally alter an individual’s personality and ‘trigger’ human aggression. For example, the shooter in the Virginia Tech massacre of 2007 was notably inspired by action films that had high levels of violence. In this context, mass media inherently desensitizes a person to pain and suffering, resulting in aggression to translates to deviant behavior. However, there is also a significant body of research suggesting that there is no association between causal media effects and aggregated crime rates, arguing that interaction between media and behavior is intermediated by the media audience. This is what is known as the Self-Determination and Uses and Gratifications approach. Thus, a tendency to commit crimes is caused by environmental factors and psychological predispositions rather than exposure to media. It is consistent with empirical evidence which highlights that violent crimes in mass media affect those individuals most who already have violent tendencies, inapplicable to the general population (Rios, 2008).

The rationale of the Study

According to various sources examined in this paper (Helfgott, 2018; Rios, 2008;), there is an inherent lack of empirical research on the topic, partially due to the difficulty of contributing to the empirical intractability of the issue since the relationship between media and crime may be inherently a vicious cycle. On one hand, criminals benefit from the direct and indirect reputational coverage of media, particularly if it is fictionalized and persists long-term after the crime is committed (i.e. outside of a weekly news cycle), having an incentive to make crimes increasingly violent or gruesome. On the other hand, media is driven by sensationalism, with the most heinous crimes remaining in infamy and becoming part of films and television shows, which can provoke criminals who may seek attention (as common with serial killers for example). Criminals are also expected to copy certain ‘crime styles’ or follow a particular lifestyle, with the media serving as almost an “instructional model” (Rios, 2008). Therefore, there is an inherent difficulty in determining which aspect is the cause and the effect as well as the perception of appeal that the media offers regarding crime, providing a need for closer examination.

Media consumption has also shifted rapidly in recent years, focusing strongly on streaming platforms such as Netflix. Crime continues to be a predominant concept, particularly with various shows and films attempting to portray the perspective of the criminal or humanize them. Some of the popular shows in the genre include Narcos, Money Heist, Mindhunter, Fargo, The Ozarks, and others. It represents a significant shift for television and film which have traditionally embraced detective or cop drama. It warrants examination of whether the perceptions and humanization of criminals in these shows affect the perception of audiences and potential inspirations or motivations of committed or planned crimes.

Unlike media with criminality in the past which followed rather general and predictable themes with highly superficial portrayals, both the technology and psychological understanding of crime in the modern-day creates complex and sophisticated narratives which demonstrate signs of psychological distress as well as planning of crimes by deviant characters. Based on the previously discussed theory which suggests that media either triggers aggression or simply exacerbates already existing tendencies, further research is critical to examine the psychological effects and impacts of mass media in connection to it being a causal factor to criminality if any association exists.

Overall, this approach to the topic is generally less studied. While multiple studies and research exist regarding how crime in media influences public perception (such as fear) or views of the criminal justice system, the debate regarding violent media and criminality is less explored. In the overarching contexts described above, it presents an opportunity to develop research and a framework as a foundation to further empirical research on the subject.

Aims and Objectives

Aim: To examine the effects of mass popular media glorifying crime and criminal lifestyle on the real-world prevalence of instances of illegal activity or aggressive behavior.

Objectives

1. Examining the appeal of the criminal lifestyle in media and its perceptions by audiences.
2. Identifying associations between crime popularization in popular media and real-world activity.
3. Determining the psychological and psychosocial effects of media popularization of crime on motivations to commit the crime or overall aggressive behavior.

Literature Review

A study by Rios (2008) focused on measuring the effects of media coverage of violent crime on criminal behavior in the context of drug trafficking. The objective of the study sought to determine whether media triggers criminal behavior or results in mimicking violence. The researcher collected homicide information on 31,676 drug traffickers and crime styles and compared it to elements of media coverage. They found that media coverage leads to other similar styles, or copycat crimes but does not increase rates, suggesting that the trigger hypothesis is incorrect (Rios, 2008).

A study by Baranauskas and Drakulich (2018) comprehensively examined the media’s construction of crime and the consequences and influence of diverse media forms on the social construction process. The researchers drew on data from previously collected national surveys from American National Election Studies. These surveys provided data regarding perceptions of crime in the public and time spent on television and various forms of media, and how the crime was seen and perceived socially in comparison to the reality of national crime trends. The researchers found that those partaking in local television news and fictional crime drama believed in growing crime trends and supported tougher crime policies. Implications are that perceptions of the viewers are significantly influenced by fictional media environments (Baranauskas & Drakulich, 2018).

Savage and Yancey (2008) performed a meta-analysis of 26 independent samples of studies studying the exposure to media violence on criminal and violent aggression. The objective was to summarize strong evidence in support of the argument that exposure to media violence causes aggression on a relevant scale. Notably, the researchers distinguish between simple aggression and criminal intent which is illegal, which is understandably the minority of studies and cases. In the meta-analysis, the researchers found that no effect has been established between media violence and criminal aggression. However, they underline that this is not an indicator that the effect does not exist, but potentially suggests that other factors such as poverty, family, and exposure to real-life aggression may have stronger influences (Savage & Yancey, 2008).

The article by Nayar-Akhtar (2016) presents a theoretical review of the literature examining the role of media violence in the context of general culture. In turn, statistical evidence suggests that there are both developmental and socio-cultural consequences regarding the involvement of violence. The author presents a psychoanalytical perspective suggesting that discerning fantasy and real life as a core aspect of imagination, particularly in childhood development, are affected by the escalation of violence and criminality in the media. However, it is not necessarily a causal relationship, as individual expressions of violence and criminality can be related to intrapsychic functioning and group processes (Nayar-Akhtar, 2016).

Similarly, Evans et al. (2020) present a theoretical literature review regarding the role of media on the rate of crime in society, particularly among youth. The researchers present two competing perspectives in society, suggesting on one hand that media is inherently subversive, while on the other hand that it is a subtle form of social control. Typically, those who see media as subversive believe that representations of crime are a cause of criminal deviance. The implications for this are because violence is an inherently learned phenomenon, media plays a role in the consumption culture of generating a potentially indifferent or even violent society (Evans et al., 2020).

A Master’s thesis by Nightingale (2017) performs a thematic analysis of several popular media television shows, categorizes themes, and conducts an interview process with the public to determine viewing habits and perceptions. This is done in the context of media criminology and how it distorts social constructions of crime. Findings suggest that media presents inaccurate portrayals of crime, and this affects social constructs and cultural understandings, with the implications that this can influence the workings of the criminal justice system as well as those who may choose to commit crimes under false assumptions that their knowledge of the process can allow them to evade the law (Nightingale, 2017).

Similarly, a thesis study by Latora (2020), conducted an analysis of uses and gratifications along with the framing of serial killer representations in television shows. The researcher utilized a qualitative approach, first using a framing analysis of media examples followed by a thematic analysis of audience reviews. Therefore, the research drew connections between the framing of the media and how the audience perceived and was gratified by it. The research found that the portrayal of heinous crimes such as serial killers in media is sensational rather than sensible, and audiences receive gratification when the violent crimes are closely examined.

One of the oldest studies examined for this research is by Gerbner et al. (1984) stems from the age when popular media was just gaining traction, warranting examination. Their study focuses primarily on how television impacts political orientation but examines the concept of the mainstream. The researchers analyzed samples of network television drama and then conducted a cultivation analysis. It is relevant to this paper as the authors note that crime in prime time is at least ten times more common than in the real world, yet it is mostly symbolic violence that demonstrates power. Crime in media shows victimizations as well. It contributes to a certain mentality in a society where certain characters (particularly white males) are dominant over others, which may reflect in criminal behavior (Gerbner et al., 1984).

A study by Maeder and Corbett (2015) sought to consider how crime television impacts attitudes and expectations of crime and criminal justice in real life. This study once again follows the CSI effect. The study had a sample of 119 participants who had to read a trial transcript and answer a juror questionnaire and television habits questionnaire. The researchers found an association between the frequency of watching as well as personal factors as determinants of perception of realism in said television shows (Maeder & Corbett, 2015). The implication of the article to this research suggests that greater exposure to the media may create a greater sense of believed realism regarding what is seen in the show.

An article by Krahe (2016) is a commentary and summary of evidence regarding the effects of violent media from a cross-cultural perspective. The author notes that the link between violent media and aggression is consistent across many countries despite drastic differences in cultural norms. This convergence is critical in consideration of violence in screen media leading to aggression in multiple samples across countries. The implication is that the underlying mechanism of media effects is highly psychological rather than influenced by perception or culture (Krahe, 2016).

A study by Fischer et al. (2011) examines the effects of glorification of high-risk activities in media on cognitions, emotions, and behaviors. The study conducted a meta-analysis, accounting for more than 80,000 participants. They found that exposure to the media depictions increases risk-taking inclinations, affecting both risk-taking as well as underlying dimensions such as cognitions and attitudes (Fischer et al., 2011). Although crime is not described in this study (although underage drinking and high-speed driving are illegal), the implication is that the media exposure to the highly thrilling activity that crime often is can stimulate similar effects in real-life pushing individuals to partake in an illegal activity solely based on risk-taking.

Another relevant psychological phenomenon is examined by McGuigan et al. (2011), focusing on how children and adults imitate various actions. The study sample consisted of 48 children and 24 adults which participated in a psychological experiment of working on a puzzle. The results show that despite a tendency in young children to imitate what is seen, sometimes to the extreme, models suggest that people become more imitative as they are more mature, with a higher level of fidelity (McGuigan et al., 2011). This implies that if adults seek to achieve a specific result, and it has been depicted in media, they may imitate the depicted behavior.

A study by Mrug et al. (2015) examines how exposure to violence contributes to emotional desensitization which may lead to violent behavior. The study examined a community sample of 704 individuals who reported exposure to violence at ages 11, 13, and 18. They found that early exposure to violence leads to emotional desensitization which translates to externalizing problems and is a predictor of violent behavior by adulthood. The implications of this, as noted by the authors, is that exposure to media violence may bear similar effects of emotional desensitization, albeit likely less extreme and consistent, but enough to potentially cause real-life violence or psychological consequences (Mrug et al., 2015).

Similarly, Di Tella et al. (2017) found that desensitization to crime and violence occurs with exposure, even in media format. Once exposed to media of crime-related activities and violence, the biological reaction of victimized individuals remains normal. The study had a sample of 160 individuals, assigned to control and intervention groups. Biological markers were measured before and during exposure to the media, with the control group first watching non-criminal activity. Those exposed to criminality and violence in media twice have subdued reactions. The implication of this is that the individuals experience habituation to crime (Di Tella et al., 2017).

Finally, Critcher (2012) conducted case studies on the mediums of film and video games that have been associated with supposed violence and aggression, particularly in youth. The author conducts a theoretical analysis, applying models and concepts, such as the element of moral panic which often surrounds such new media. He notes that the media is both the instigator and the purveyor of the discussion. Furthermore, the argument is emotionally charged and morally polarized. Regardless of media type, there are common characteristics that occur with media panic focusing on the topic of how the media influences violence and aggression but eventually fades once some form of censorship is introduced (Critcher, 2012).

Results & Discussion

According to the comprehensive study by Rios (2008), it is suggested that their results support the ‘rudder’ hypothesis of Self-Determination and Uses and Gratifications theory rather than the ‘trigger’ response of the General Aggression Theory. In other words, a detailed portrayal of crime in media does not increase crime rates but may encourage stylistic imitation or credit-taking related to media coverage (Ross, 2008). While viewers of fictional crime investigation dramas are more likely to believe that crime is increasing, thus causing greater fear of crime and support for harsher anti-crime policies, this is not the case. It highlights that understanding crime does not have to be grounded in reality. The fictional nature of crime dramas serves as a source of information when presented with any context (real-life or news) of crime. The television shows frame reality where crime is constant and continues leads people to believe that crime is rising, despite rates of violent crime generally falling over the last decades (Baranauskas & Drakulich, 2018).

Interest in violence is present in all forms of media, and it is commonly presented in a manner to has the biggest emotional and psychological impact, feeding on the sensation of crime in media. The excessive presence of criminality in media can potentially lead to a perverse distortion of values. Both in real-life news as well as fictional media, the criminal, especially if it is a heinous crime is offered significant media exposure, becoming a ‘celebrity.’ It can be argued that such contexts create fascination rather than disapproval, having negative impacts socially on young people, through the desire of imitation. Iorgulescu (2018) suggests that the effect has a large influence on a small portion of people and a small influence on a large percentage. The primary influences are imitation and disinhibition (informing about techniques of violence), and those who are prone to violence may adopt the scenarios provided in the mass media due to desensitization and reduced empathy.

People can respond to the various message communicated through mass media technology and oftentimes engage in behaviors that are uncharacteristic for them. This phenomenon has its origins in the theory of disinhibition, large-group dynamics, and assertion of copycat/mimicry actions. However, evidence suggests that socio-cultural contexts play a more critical role, and other identifiable influences are responsible for violence in Western society, more influential than the glorification of violence and crime in media (Nayar-Akhtar, 2016). Savage and Yancey (2008) argue that if there is a positive correlation between media and crime, it is small. Other factors have far more influential roles in the development of criminality such as poverty, poor education, living environment, and exposure to real-life violence. Even if there is evidence suggesting that children may imitate aggression seen in media, in the end, deviant crime also follows the principle that “real life trumps TV every time” (Savage & Yancey, 2008).

Typically, the effect of exposure is stronger for active media such as video games rather than passive such as film and television. However, there is also the aspect of the degree of the contextual fit between the media content and the risk-taking behavior (Fischer et al., 2011). Criminal violence and murder are illegal but still provide a high level of entertainment and thrill when consumed through media. Interest in violent media can be linked to the personality of the viewers, with those who enjoy consuming violent media also desire risk and excitement regularly, these are virtually high-sensation seekers. The media has encouraged this interest and allowed violence and crime to become commonplace in various mediums (Latora, 2020). A small but informative body of research suggests that the development of aggressive behavior due to media violence can be seen across multiple cultures, with the thoughts and feelings assumed to mediate the impact of violent media also seen across the board, suggesting the highly psychological nature of the relationship (Krahé, 2016).

McGuigan et al. (2011) found the elements of imitation of behavior. Therefore, in multiple studies, participants who watched more media about crime indicated their own ability to either commit a crime or get away with it. Both children and adults learn socially deviant behavior from television, which may inspire imitation in real life. These perceptions similarly inspired the ‘CSI effect’ which suggested that criminal dramas impacted how juries acted in criminal trials. There is also the CSI-education effect, suggesting that criminals can get better at evading capturing a thorough understanding of techniques used by law enforcement and forensics. Therefore, this inspires fear of crime and a lack of faith in the criminal justice system in the public and theoretically inspires more sophisticated criminal activity. However, the CSI effect in either interpretation is largely anecdotal and has not been proven at scale (Nightingale, 2017; Maeder & Corbett, 2015).

Emotional desensitization is the primary hypothesis why people become used to crime and violence, both in real life and in media. With exposure to violence, youth demonstrate patterns of pathological adaptation, which can be presented with high levels of external aggression combined with low levels of internalization (Mrug et al., 2015). The desensitization or habituation phenomena are commonplace for many repeat stimuli across various settings. However, once again passive vs. active exposure does play a role in the level. Nevertheless, even if never experiencing real-life violence, exposure to media can create a certain level of adaptation (Di Tella et al., 2017).

Increases in violence, gangs, or other criminality and social vices prevalent today can be potentially traced to remote and overt influences of the media. The media tends to glamorize alcohol and drugs, highlighting the supposed masculinity behind them. The glorification of various risky behaviors, including criminal ones, is aimed at the satisfaction of passions or desires, which can create imitation and poor decision-making in youth (Evans et al., 2020). However, as examined by Critcher (2012), the media has consistently faced scrutiny from the public due to moral panic. The primary allegation against the media is that they contribute to anti-social behavior by providing inappropriate role models. However, moral regulation requires the consideration of the perspective of who is morally at risk (Critcher, 2012).

Cultivation theory is one of the most prominent approaches to the influence of media. Gerbner et al. (1984) found that viewing violence on television heightened perceptions of danger and risk while exaggerating mistrust and insecurity. The research also found that the power of media in creating relative levels of victimization cultivates similar hierarchies of fear as real-world victimization would for viewers (Gerbner et al., 1984). Cultivation theory examines the massive flow of information over a prolonged period, resulting in a cultivation process taking place as the viewer interacts with the idea of the message, but neither the audience nor the message is all-powerful. Rather, it is continued exposure that cultivates certain values and perspectives (Phillips, 2017).

Overall, the consensus in academic literature is that media violence and crime may have an impact on aggression, but its influence on criminal violence and activity is highly selective and rare it can be proven at all. Identifying a direct, causal relationship between media and violent crime is elusive. Some connections that have been identified are similarly stylistically ‘copycat’ crimes of what is seen in media but not triggered or inspired by them. Media is influential in shaping how certain offenders commit crimes. Despite popular discourse and media commonly making the connection, the majority of academic research avoids making the causal link between media exposure and criminal violent behavior simply because the issue is both complex and difficult to prove empirically. Crime in media is a causal risk factor for mild forms of aggression, but rarely for criminal behavior. The extreme violence of that extent (such as serial or violent killers, mass shootings, etc) albeit being somehow associated with some media portrayal, tends to occur when multiple risk factors converge within an individual (Phillips, 2017).

Conclusion

Popular mass media plays a significant role in modern entertainment consumption. Criminality has become central to various popular productions and is one of the key genres of interest for many. Due to the influence that media may hold, it is hypothesized that crime in media may reflect in some form on real-life criminal activity. This paper conducted a literature review on the topic, arriving at mixed conclusions. Although there are some indications that crime in media may influence deviant behavior, the response does not follow a ‘trigger’ but rather a ‘copycat’ approach. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that a healthy individual will seek to commit crimes after witnessing it in popular media, but rather an individual with already existing disturbances may attempt to mimic some elements seen in media. Nevertheless, there are some social consequences as a result of the overwhelming amount of crime and violence in media, including the cultivation of mistrust, fear, and vulnerability to crime, potential desensitization to the media violence, as well as generating some levels of non-criminal aggression. Overall, the established correlation does not seem to exist based on this secondary research, the effect if present is small, despite cultural concerns and popular discussion that evidence exists to the contrary.

Limitations of the Study

The research is purely a literature review on the topic and does not conduct any primary research which may provide empirical data in the support of objectives. The paper relies heavily on other literature reviews and meta-analyses rather than primary research due to limited availability. The paper focuses primarily on violent crime and aggression, but only briefly touches on other types of deviant behavior such as financial crimes, cybercrimes, or political crimes popular in current mass media. The research arguably lacks validity since the review presents generally mixed conclusions with a lack of data for definitive outcomes as well as potentially not encompassing multiple factors that may be associated with the topic.

References

Baranauskas, A. J., & Drakulich, K. M. (2018). Media construction of crime revisited: Media types, consumer contexts, and frames of crime and justice.Criminology, 56(4), 679–714. Web.

Bonn, S. (2016). Why we are drawn to true crime shows.Time. Web.

Critcher, C. (2012). Screen savers. Case histories of social reaction to mass media, children and violence. Recherches Sociologiques et Anthropologiques, 43(1), 59–78. Web.

Di Tella, R., Freira, L., Gálvez, R. H., Schargrodsky, E., Shalom, D., & Sigman, M. (2019). Crime and violence: Desensitization in victims to watching criminal events.Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 159, 613–625. Web.

Evans, V., Paul, A. P., Amanda, A., & Austin, P. (2020). The role of media in influencing the rate of crime among youths in the society.INOSR Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(1), 1-6. Web.

Fischer, P., Greitemeyer, T., Kastenmüller, A., Vogrincic, C., & Sauer, A. (2011). The effects of risk-glorifying media exposure on risk-positive cognitions, emotions, and behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 137(3), 367–390. Web.

Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1984). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. Web.

Helfgott, J. B. (2018). Criminal behavior: Theories, typologies and criminal justice. SAGE.

Iorgulescu, G. (2018). The influence of mass media on the development of deviant personality.Merit Research Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 6(7). Web.

Jewkes, Y. (2011). Media and crime. SAGE.

Krahé, B. (2016). Violent media effects on aggression: A commentary from a cross-cultural perspective.Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 16(1), 439–442. Web.

Latora, M. M. (2020). Netflix and kill: A framing and uses and gratifications comparative analysis of serial killer representations in the media [Thesis]. Web.

Maeder, E. M., & Corbett, R. (2015). Beyond frequency: Perceived realism and the CSI Effect.Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 57(1), 83–114. Web.

McGuigan, N., Makinson, J., & Whiten, A. (2011). From over-imitation to super-copying: Adults imitate causally irrelevant aspects of tool use with higher fidelity than young children.British Journal of Psychology, 102(1), 1–18. Web.

Mrug, S., Madan, A., & Windle, M. (2015). Emotional desensitization to violence contributes to adolescents’ violent behavior.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(1), 75–86. Web.

Nayar-Akhtar, M. C. (2016). Do we glorify violence in our culture? Psychoanalytic perspectives on media and violence.Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 36(6), 510–522. Web.

Nightingale, K. A. (2017). Media criminology and the potentially distorted social constructions of crime. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Web.

Phillips, N. (2017). Violence, media effects, and criminology. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Oxford University Press. Web.

Rios, V. (2018). Media effects on crime and crime style. Web.

Savage, J., & Yancey, C. (2008). The effects of media violence exposure on criminal aggression.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(6), 772–791. Web.

VanArendonk, K. (2019). Why is TV so addicted to crime?Vulture. Web.