The aim of the paper is to identify the reasons that have shaped and led to the development of the history of psychology. Many have delved deep into the fact-based history of Psychology that outlines prominent movements and nothing else. It is important, however, also to consider that these prominent movements have had prominent reasons. The development of psychology was borne out of a variety of contemporary scientific and philosophical questions regarding the understanding of human behavior.
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes (Feldman, p. 2). Its present-day shape is due to the major movements that shaped its structure and many debates over the various approaches that have governed its study. The real origins of psychological thought are lost in prehistoric mystery. In the western world, psychology is broadly the search for the causes of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. At various times and in various places, different assumptions about those causes have led to different answers and even different ways of seeking the answers but the questions have remained the same. After more than 3000 years of written history, the questions are still unanswered (O’ Boyle, p. 1). Psychology has a long past but short history (Singh, p. 1). Its past begins with the advent of intelligent thought wondering about the workings of thought itself – beginning in the basis of philosophy. With the development of science and the advancement of the industrial age, it began taking a more scientific shape, finding and furthering its roots in biology and other scientific disciplines, instead of philosophy. Proponents focused more and more on the scientific and measurable aspects of human behavior rather than the theoretical and introspective model, which began psychology in its initial days.
It formally began taking shape with Structuralism and Functionalism in Europe. Wundt is considered to be the founder of experimental psychology (Dalton & Evans, p. 22), which pioneered the establishment of psychology as a ‘science’ and not an arbitrary off-shoot of philosophy. He saw the mind as a natural event that could be studied scientifically, like light, heat, and the flow of blood. Wundt used ‘introspection’, which would later shape as the key method of scientific investigation in the movements of Structuralism. He presented his colleagues with various sights and sounds and would ask them to look inward as objectively as possible to describe their sensations and feelings (Rathus, p. 9). Structuralism attempted to break conscious experience down into parts, analyzing them objectively. Structuralists believed that when the mind combines objective and subjective experiences, it understands the world through this combination (Rathus, p. 9). In contrast came forward William James, founder of the corresponding school of Functionalism. They focused on behavior rather than the breaking down of conscious experience. For the experience of everyday life, Functionalists wanted to investigate how our experience helps us function in our daily life activities – for example, how habits help us cope with common situations. James was influenced by the British naturalist, Darwin, and his theory of ‘survival of the fittest’. Functionalists proposed a more adaptive theory of studying psychology and behavior (Rathus, p. 12). With the two opposing approaches beginning the formal history of psychology, it was to be the future of psychology, even up to today, where the debate between ‘mind’ and ‘behavior’ begins and ends with no conclusion. Where Structuralists studied the elements of the mind, Functionalists focused on elements of behavior. Although both approaches strived to make psychology a scientific, objective discipline, as did those who came after them, they were unable to resolve the inevitable and prolonging debate regarding what to make the center of psychological investigation: mind or body.
In Europe, around about the same time, Psychoanalysis, one of the most profound influences in the development of psychology, was emerging as a powerful new method of approach. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, became the originator of the psychoanalytic theory in the early 1900s. To Freud, conscious experience is just the tip of the iceberg; like the unseen mass of a floating iceberg, the material found in the unconscious dwarfs the information about which we are aware (Feldman, p. 381). Many modern psychologists continue to embrace the diverse theories descended from Freud. In the 1940s and 50s, psychodynamic theory dominated the practice of psychotherapy and was influencing scientific psychology and the arts (Rathus, p. 11). It was spun by great thinkers and philosophers, who, influenced by a deep knowledge of the history of psychology, German philosophy, and the ability to quote the Bible, Shakespeare, and Greek tragedies (Alexander et al, p. 78) were giving psychology a new shape and texture of its own. It spoke of an ‘id’ the raw, unorganized, inherited part of the personality whose sole purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives of hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. The Super-Ego is the moral structure that defines the sense of right and wrong. It is shaped by parents, society, and the demands placed upon the individual from society. There is a constant struggle between the id and the superego which is maintained through the reality principle, or the ‘ego’. In Freudian terms, ‘conflict’ occurs when the balance between superego and id is shaken and the ego cannot maintain that balance (Feldman, p. 382). Freud made significant contributions to the classification of psychiatric disorders. He attempted to differentiate the mechanisms underlying anxiety disorders, depression, and psychosis. However, it may be confessed that psychoanalytic thinking is highly theory-laden (Bateman & Holmes, p. 212). Each disorder is related to the central psychoanalytic concept of psychological conflict, which in turn is based on sexual repression and development.
Behaviorism started off very definitely and consciously as a school (Woodworth, p. 68). It started off with the leading names in animal psychology (Edward Thorndike, Robert Yerkes, etc). It was mainly propounded by J. B. Watson, the American psychologist. Watson was firm in his view that a full understanding of behavior could be obtained if one could modify and control the environment of the individual. Watson wanted to teach psychology dealing with visible, concrete facts (Woodworth, p. 69). In this respect it was decidedly different in approach and methodology from Freudian psychoanalysis where the focus was on interpretations of the psychoanalysts, delving into an aspect of behavior which is far from being visible and concrete, viz. the subconscious and the unconscious. Watson was critical in his significance and influence on psychology as many of the younger generations of the time thought that Watson was clearing away old mysteries, uncertainties, complexities, and difficulties, a heritage from a philosophy that the older psychologists had not been able to shake off (Woodworth, p. 70).
Humanistic psychology deals with consciousness, values, and abstract beliefs, including spiritual experiences and the beliefs that people live and die for. Personality is decided not by internal or external interpretations of textbooks but by what people believe and how they perceive the world (Kalat, p. 502). Humanistic Psychology focuses on a person-and-perception point of view. The closer the ‘congruence’ between the people’s self and the perception of the world, the better the health of the person. In other words, a person views himself in the world as he views the world. This enables him to adjust to his/her environment in a much better way (Martin and Swartz, p.102). First practiced by Carl Rogers, client-centered therapy is the best-known and most frequently used type of humanistic psychology in the treatment of disorders. The therapist does not dictate his interpretation of the situation (unlike Freud) rather provides what Roger called “unconditional positive regard” – which is to express acceptance and understand, regardless of the feelings and attitudes the client expresses (Feldman, p. 467). Rogers was the first theoretician to explicitly cite the centrality of empathic understanding across the body of his writings. It was identified as an attitudinal element that contributes to the ‘constructive client change in the treatment relationship’ (Clark, p. 44). This was a big breakthrough for the movements in psychology as it traced its origins back to philosophical disciplines of existentialism and ontology. Unlike Watson or Freud, Rogers encouraged the human element of self and self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which individuals realize their highest potentials (Feldman, p. 302).
Cognitive psychologists are interested in the processes by which patterns and objects are recognized, attended to, remembered, imagined, and linguistically elaborated. These basic processes also feed into higher-order decision-making and complex problem-solving behavior (Balota and March, p. 1). Albert Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy which focused on the main elements of Cognitive Psychology and Behavioral techniques for the resolving of mental illnesses. According to Ellis, humans are happiest when they establish important goals in life and purposes and actively strive to attain these. In REBT theory rationale is that ‘which helps people to achieve their basic goals and purposes’, whereas irrational means that which ‘prevents them from achieving these goals and purposes’ (Ellis and Dryden, p. 4). Cognitive Psychology traced itself to another root of psychology – to the study of mind and the concept of beliefs in human existence. It began addressing questions outside the sphere of behavior and observable facts which was the dominant scheme in the approach of Behaviorism. It bridged with Behaviorism a crucial connection to the modern advances in linguistics and technology which were increasingly finding themselves fascinated with artificial intelligence, genetics, and computer technology. Psychology also began finding a rising interest in the same domain, with the exploration of mind versus interpretation of the mind, where the structure and setup of the mind began having more effect on psychological researches, rather than the unconscious conflicts and dilemmas of sexual repression.
Since its inception as a definite science till the present day, psychology has struggled with continental and academic tugs-of-war between approaches, disciplines, perspectives, and dominant themes. It has found its crux in a singular aspect – the issue of mind and behavior. On one hand, when it emerged, it grew with the aspiration of growing as a science, focused albeit on the theory of mind and not on behavior. Yet it impressed scientific study with its intriguing discoveries with the set-up of labs and methods of introspection under Structuralism. With Functionalism, it began establishing fundamentals in the behavior and observable facts; which later led to the development of Behaviorism. With a somewhat radical approach, Watson added to the growing debate by siding towards the observation of behavior and the manipulation of the environment. Watson’s approach to psychology was accepted far and wide and influences many therapeutic approaches to this day (e.g. REBT). He viewed human beings as simply responsive to the stimuli in the environment and had the capability of being molded and reshaped if the environment was modified as well. Freudian innovations took it on another spin on the mind-exploration when it proclaimed that all behavior stemmed not majorly from the environmental causes – but from deep within. These sources were of interminable nature and had a considerable impact on each and every aspect of human life. He drew from examples of Greek mythology (Oedipus complex) and established a very masculine-oriented (concepts such as penis-envy and Electra complex), sexuality-based theory of the mind and once again formed a base in the theoretical portion of psychology. Carl Rogers, the humanistic psychologist, tried and succeeded to some extent, in relieving psychology from excessively complicated and over-theoretical structures such as libido, id, and Oedipal conflict. He believed that humans are more inclined to find solutions on their own rather than relying on outside interpretations. The job of the psychologist was simply to guide the person into finding these solutions through providing positive regard which was regardless of the situation, behavior, and nature of the person, and understand this need for self-actualization. With the onslaught of media, technology, artificial intelligence, and robotics, Cognitive Psychology began making its way into mainstream psychology as a separate approach altogether. It focused on the elements of the mind in a more scientific and coherent way than the Structuralists and in a less obtuse way than the theoretical models.
The heart of the breakthrough was perhaps the jump from a theoretical model to a scientific model. Where Freud was based on biological approaches to psychology and Watson also finding his basis in animal psychology, a more cognitive, rational-empiricist viewpoint for psychology emerged, serving as a breakthrough in its approaches. The debate exists over continents still, with the United States more predominantly enjoying the fruits of REBT, CEBT, and Humanistic Psychology, whereas there are still many practitioners in Europe who would still declare Psychoanalysis as the dominant force in psychology. It is perhaps in the nature of psychology to never find its answers as the debate continues between radical behaviorists and radical psychoanalysts. Although few would call themselves radical, the differences in the given perspectives allow the followers to have a great margin for debate, especially when it comes to mind versus behavior. Psychology, after all, is said and done, benefits from these debates as it helps in its development and various perspectives add from their various experiences, researches and counter-arguments to the body of psychology as an immense, and rapidly growing scientific discipline.
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