The Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons in West Africa

Abstract

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa is a major cause of concern in the region. In this study, the focus was to determine the impact of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa on regional security. The study shows that the easy access to light weapons in the region has largely been made possible by corruption. Law enforcement agencies are willing to assist criminals to acquire and smuggle guns as long as they are paid. The problem has led to the emergence of organized crime in the region, especially the terror organizations. These criminal gangs have been accused of atrocities such as murders, kidnappings, robbery, and disruption of socio-economic activities. It is necessary for the regional governments to coordinate their efforts and share intelligence to help solve the problem. Addressing the problem of corruption among government officials and extreme poverty among the locals to achieve sustainable success in this war against proliferation of arms and activities of terror groups.

Introduction

Background of the Study

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in West Africa is a major regional security concern. Cases of terrorism, civil wars, insurgency, and organized criminal activities are fuelled by the proliferation of these weapons.¹ Achieving sustainable socio-economic development in this region significantly depends on having a secure and politically stable state. Boko Haram, a jihadist organization in Nigeria, has a strong presence in the North-Eastern part of the country. Its activities have paralyzed economic activities in the region as they strike at will, often targeting learning institutions, hospitals, places of worship, and government installations. The location of the region controlled by this jihadist group means that parts of Chad and Niger, which are neighboring Nigeria, are not safe either.

In Niger, extremist groups such as Jama’at Nasr al-Islam Wal Muslimin, ISIS-WA, and elements of Boko Haram are a major concern. Cameroon, Chad, and Mali are the other West African nations that are greatly affected by the problem of the extremist organization, insurgency, and activities of organized criminal gangs. Efforts to fight these groups have borne little fruits because of the ease with which the criminals can move across borders and their access to weapons that they use to fight law enforcement officers. Oluwadare explains that the problem is compounded by the fact that some political leaders have used these groups to achieve personal interests.² They create instability by making available weapons and facilitating the recruitment of young men into these gangs because of their political ambitions. These challenges have reduced the ability of regional leaders to embrace a united effort towards fighting the criminals. This paper aims to investigate the impact of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa on regional security.

Statement of the Problem

The socio-economic and political development in West Africa has been significantly slowed by the increasing activities of organized criminal gangs. According to United Nations Security Council, gang violence has become common in oil-rich parts of the region, limiting the ability of the government to control economic activities.³ These extremists and criminals get to control the extraction and sale of oil, whose proceeds they use to purchase weapons. They then use these weapons to expand their territory through intimidation and wanton murders. The ease with which small arms and light weapons can be accessed has been identified as one of the major causes of the problem.

The insecurity caused by the proliferation of these weapons has significantly affected the ability of local investors to conduct business in the region. The extraction and exportation of oil and other minerals is a lucrative business in West Africa. However, locals are forced to pay some fee, often referred to as protection fee, to the criminals for them to operate without the fear of a potential attack. Paying the fee is not a guarantee for security because the rival gang can easily take control of the region, which means that they will redefine terms of trade. The same challenge is faced by foreign investors who find it impossible to conduct meaningful business here.

The ability of a country or a region to achieve sustainable socio-economic growth depends on its political stability. The proliferation of small arms and light weapons in the region has significantly compromised security and stability in the region.⁴ In Northern Nigeria, the majority of the locals live in abject poverty despite the massive natural resources that could benefit them. Thousands of people have lost their lives, while many others displaced from their homes because of the constant wars. Ehiane and Moyo explain that the activities of these criminals have been facilitated by the availability of weapons.⁵ The insurgents and terrorists are as well-armed as the security agencies that are meant to neutralize them. Their knowledge of the region they control and the ability to intimidate the locals, only make the problem worse.

Addressing the problem of the proliferation of arms is one of the most effective ways of addressing the problem. Ujunwa, Okoyeuzu, Kalu believe that these criminal elements have been emboldened by their access to these weapons.⁶ They are so bold that they are currently targeting learning institutions, police stations, army barracks, and other government installations because they have the firepower. They have parlayed education, business, and many other socio-economic activities in the region. Foreign investors are scared of coming to the region because of the fear of a possible attack.⁷ The free flow of goods, which is essential for regional economic growth, is affected because these criminals control some of the most important trade routes. Liberating the region from the control of these insurgents and terrorists is the only way of spurring economic growth in the region.

Significance of the Research

West Africa has some of the fastest developing economies in the continent. Nigeria is currently considered the largest economy in Africa, while Ghana has also been registering impressive growth over the past two decades.⁸ The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has remained committed to ensuring that there is meaningful economic corporation among the member states as a way of enhancing regional growth and its bargaining power with other African and international trade blocks. The ability of the region to trade effectively and to facilitate socio-political development is significantly affected by the activities of insurgents, terrorists, and organized criminal gangs. The activities of these criminal gangs have been facilitated by the proliferation of small arms and light weapons.

This study is important as it investigates the impact of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa on regional security and ways in which this problem can be addressed. Coleman and Tieku explain that some parts of Nigeria have remained ungovernable because of the heavy presence of terror organizations such as Boko Haram. The same problem is affecting other countries in the region, significantly compromising the security of the region. Many lives have been lost in the hands of these criminals or in the process of trying to destroy the organizations. This study will identify factors that have facilitated the growth of these criminal outfits and reasons why it has been difficult to destroy them despite the effort put in place by the government. It will identify specific stakeholders who have the responsibility to neutralize these gangs and the reasons why they are yet to achieve the desired outcome. Through this paper, leaders in the region will get to understand what they need to do to ensure that they address the problem of the proliferation of weapons.

Research Objectives and Questions

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons is a problem that has attracted the attention of many scholars over the past several years. It is necessary to narrow down the field of study to focus on a specific aspect of this problem. The researcher was interested in investigating the impact of the proliferation of these weapons in West Africa on regional security. It is essential to develop research questions that make it possible to collect the relevant data to address the research problem. The researcher seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What is the impact of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa on regional security?
2. What are the specific factors that have facilitated the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in the region?
3. What steps are needed to ensure that these weapons are not easily accessible to criminals?

Dissertation Structure

The dissertation has five chapters, each focusing on specific aspects of the investigation. The first chapter introduces the topic, providing a background to the study, statement problem, and significance of the research and research questions that guided the process of data collection. Chapter 2 is a detailed review of secondary sources to understand what other scholars have found concerning this research. It includes a review of relevant theories that can explain the nature of the problem. Chapter 3 describes the method that was used to collect and process data in this study. It includes a discussion of challenges faced and ethical concerns that had to be observed when collecting data. The fourth chapter is the presentation of the findings made from the analysis of primary data collected from participants. The last chapter provides a summary of the findings, a conclusion, and recommendations on how the problem can be addressed.

Literature Review

The previous chapter has provided a background information and the aim of this study. In this chapter. The focus is to review the literature to understand what other scholars have found out in this field. According to Adebajo, insecurity in West Africa is an issue that has attracted the attention of many scholars over the recent past.⁹ It has been necessary to understand how organized criminal gangs are able to sustain their activities despite the military effort by the government. Of interest has been the need to understand how these groups have been able to access the dangerous weapons that they use, their capacity to blend well with some of the locals, and the ability to consistently recruit youths to join their military outfits. Through the review, it will be possible to answer some of the research questions and to define the focus that primary data collection should take.

Factors that Have Caused Proliferation of SALW in West Africa

Regional insecurity in West Africa is primarily blamed on the massive proliferation of small arms and light weapons. According to Egbuta, efforts by law enforcement officers to eliminate the criminal elements in parts of Nigeria, Chad, Niger, and Cameroon have not been successful because the targeted groups as just as well-armed as the police.¹⁰ They have enough firepower to sustain an attack by the government. Using ambush as one of their trademark strategies, sometimes these criminals would attack and take control of government installation. It is necessary to understand factors that have caused proliferation of SALW in the region.

Porous Borders

One of the biggest challenge in the fight against the proliferation of small arms and light weapons is the issue of porous borders. According to Tar and Onwurah, most of the terror organizations, insurgents, and organized criminal gangs prefer operating along the borders.¹¹ It makes it easy for them to move from one country to the next with ease. For instance, Boko Haram is very active in North Eastern part of Nigeria. They can easily move from this region to western region of Chad or Southern Niger. They have created instability in the region, making it almost impossible for the government to govern these border.

The porous borders in the region controlled by this terror outfit enables them to smuggle weapons from one country to the other. They can acquire weapons in Nigeria by attacking police stations or military bases and then smuggle them across the border to Chad or Niger.¹² The porous borders also makes it possible for the criminals to move to another country with their weapons to another country in case they are attacked by the government. It means that when the Nigerian government initiates a sustained attack against these criminals in an effort to disarm and dismantle the outfit, they can easily move with their weapons to a neighboring country. Government forces cannot pursue these criminals beyond the national borders. This limitation that government forces face has aided and facilitated the activities of these criminals.

Corruption

Corruption has been cited as one of the major stumbling blocks in the fight against the proliferation of weapons in West Africa. According to Oladejo, studies have shown that activities of organized criminal gangs have been facilitated by corrupt leaders in many ways.¹³ First, there have been claims that terror outfits and criminals gangs are getting their arms and ammunitions from law enforcement officers and military operatives. The poorly paid officers find it beneficial to sell weapons to these criminals, hoping that the weapons will not be used against them. These claims makes it possible for one to understand the regular supply of ammunitions for the criminals and terror elements.

Corruption has also been blamed for the ease of movement of weapons across the borders in the region. According to Oshita, Alumona, and Onuoha, the flow of weapons across the regional borders does not just happen in regions controlled by terrorists and insurgencies.¹⁴ It also happens across borders controlled by government forces. The criminals and terrorists have created effective corruption networks, making it possible for border patrol agencies and law enforcement officers to ignore the movement of the weapons. They not only know that weapons are being smuggled, but in some cases facilitate the movement of the contraband goods. They are paid to specifically ensure that the weapons move from one border point to a location where criminals will need to use them.

Corruption also affects those holding various political offices. Omeje believes that some of the politicians in the region are directly benefiting from the activities of criminal gangs and terror organizations.¹⁵ Their expensive campaigns are financed by the terrorists and these criminals. It means that once they are in the political office, they have to use their influence to protect their financiers. In such cases, these politicians become part of the organized criminal gangs. They become obligated to protect their interests as much as possible. The affected leaders know that they have to follow orders of the leaders of these groups to ensure that they continue getting financial backing without authorities knowing that they are involved in the crimes.

There have been claims that some politicians have used criminal elements to win elections. During the electioneering period, they create instability to ensure that it works in their favor.¹⁶ The terror outfits and criminal gangs would be used to intimidate the locals to ensure that they vote for a specific candidates. The electorates know that such threats are real, and for the sake of their security and stability in the region, they would vote for that candidate. When it is apparent that electorates in a specific region cannot be coerced to vote for the desired candidate, these criminal gangs would create instability during the electioneering period. The goal is to make sure that voting in these region is made as difficult and as dangerous as possible. Once in office, these politicians have to ensure that they serve interests of the criminals who put them in office. They have to embrace corruption and other unethical practices to ensure that their gangs have access to the weapons that they need.

Regional Instability

The proliferation of weapons in West Africa has been facilitated by instability within the region. The problem is not unique to any specific country in the region. In Nigeria, there has been a civil war and the emergence of terror organizations. The Nigerian civil war, often known as the Biafran war, was provoked by ethno-religious differences, military coups, and the desire to control oil fields in the region.¹⁷ The war not only affected Nigeria but also parts of west and north of Cameroon. Although some form of stability has been restored in the southern part of Nigeria, parts of the northern and north-eastern parts of the country is not controlled by the Boko Haram terror group.

In Cameroon, there is a civil war that is yet to be resolved since 2017. The Anglophone crisis, commonly known as the Ambazonia War, has had a significant influence on the regional insecurity.¹⁸ Efforts by the government to crush activities of the militants on the region has failed to yield the desired success. The separatist in the west, identified as the Ambazonia Defense Forces, has formed alliance with the indigenous people, mostly the Ipob, which is the people of Biafra, an ethnic Igbo in the western part of Cameroon.¹⁹ It is important to understand that the majority of Igbo population are in southeast of Nigeria. It is natural that the Ambazonian forces will get military support from the people of Igbo in Nigeria who may be interested in protecting their ethnic population in the neighboring country. As such, it is common for arms and ammunitions to move from southeast of Nigeria to West Cameroon.

The civil war in Chad has also fueled the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in the region. Úrsula and Brauch observes that in Chad, the religious rift between the Sub-Saharan Christians in the south and Arab Muslims in the north have significantly affected the stability of the region.²⁰ The change of constitution in 2005, which gave President Idriss Déby sweeping powers, caused a major civil war in the country that is still felt to this day.²¹ It has been revealed that the war was made possible because of the ease of access to weapons from neighboring countries. The Arab northerners relied on countries like Libya to supply them with weapons needed to sustain the war. On the other hand, the Christian southerners relied on allies from Nigeria and other nations in the south to gain access to the necessary weapons. The civil war not only compromised security in Chad but also its neighboring states.

Limited Political Goodwill

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa has been facilitated by lack of political goodwill to fight the problem. According to Amiard, some of the leaders who are in the highest political offices feel obligated to support and protect activities of militia groups and other criminal gangs.²² In Chad, for instance, the constant war between Christian southerners and Islamic northerners is fuelled by the need to take control of power. It means that when a northerner is in power, they will make an effort to protect known criminal gangs because they will need them in case they are toppled from power. The same trend will be witnessed when a southerner takes control of the country’s leadership. They will make a deliberate effort to ensure that they protect what they believe to be their political interest.

In Nigeria, the lack of political goodwill to fight proliferation of arms and activities of organized criminal gangs is partly caused by the desire to control extraction and sale of oil. Some of the most insecure parts of Nigeria are rich in oil.²³ A section of the political class are interested in gaining exclusive control of the exploitation of these resources. They create political instability in the region to ensure that the government cannot control the economic activities of the region. They then use their proxies to extract and sell the commodity to the international market.²⁴ The only way of ensuring that they protect their economic interest in these regions is to frustrate any effort that can meaningfully limit flow of arms.

Poor Relationship between Law Enforcement Officers and Civilians

The proliferation of light weapons in West Africa is partly attributed to the poor relationship between law enforcement officers and civilians in the affected regions. The ability of the police to effectively fight crime in a given region depends on the relationship developed with the locals. They need the support of the locals to gather the necessary intelligence that will inform their actions. The information they gather helps to determine strategies that arm smugglers use, their common trade routes, the primary sources, customers, and many other vital information²⁵. They can then use the gathered information to coordinate their attacks and to neutralize the threat in an effective way.

The problem that has hindered this fight is the poor relationship between the locals and the officers. Moyo, Nshimbi, and Laine explain that in many cases, officers view the locals as enablers and sympathizers of the criminals.²⁶ As such, they use excessive force when cracking down on the criminal activities. In most cases, victims of such police brutality are innocent civilians who would have helped the police to fight the crime. Actions of the police create a wedge between law enforcement agencies and the locals. Instead of helping the police with the necessary intelligence, the locals would be willing to facilitate activities of the criminals to help neutralize the police and to be free from their brutality. The problem has been witnessed in parts of North Eastern Nigeria where some locals view the police as a brutal force that has failed to protect the locals.

Extreme Poverty

Poverty is one of the reasons why the problem of the proliferation of small and light weapons has not been effectively addressed in this country. Black-Branch and Fleck argue that in most of the regions where the flow of weapons is high, a common denominator for the locals is poverty.²⁷ The locals can barely earn a living because of various reasons. As such, they are easily lured into the business of trafficking weapons across the borders and into different parts of the country. They consider it as the only sustainable business that they can embrace to earn them some meaningful income.

Extreme poverty has also facilitated recruitment of locals into the militia and other military gangs. Agriculture and other forms of economic activities have failed in these regions. The problem is that once youths are recruited into these outfits, they not only become smugglers of weapons but fighters as well. Villages from which these youth come are forced to support the insurgents and terror groups because in so doing, they will be protecting their children. Their loyalty shifts from supporting the government’s effort to fight crime, to the needs to protect their children who are involved in criminal activities.

In regions fully controlled by terrorists and other criminal gangs, the only options that the locals have is to support their activities. These criminals have the power to control business activities in these regions. Anyone who is viewed as willing to cooperate with government agents becomes their target.²⁸ The small business owners in these regions are left with no option but to avoid any contact with government officials as a means of protecting their businesses. In regions where these criminals control extraction and sale of oil, they are known to bribe the locals as a means of controlling them. The bribes and minor financial support creates a perception that the locals have to rely on the criminals to earn a living.

Socio-Economic Injustices

A section of scholars have blamed the problem on perceived socio-economic injustices in the region. According to Ojo and Ojewale, a section of the society in Nigeria feel that they have been neglected by the political class in terms of developmental projects.²⁹ There is always a feeling that political leaders often want to reward those who vote for them. As such, it is common for them to channel major developmental projects such as construction of roads, railways, major dams, and ports to regions that are rich in votes and likely to support them. Parts of the country considered politically undesirable are ignored when planning development projects.

Feeling left out of the development agenda, such people feel that they should be more loyal to criminal outfits than to the government. They are easily influenced to join terror organizations because they believe they are more likely to benefit from them than from the government. They also feel that supporting the activities will offer them justice to the pain and suffering they have gone through in the hands of government forces. They tend to believe that activities of these criminals would bring back the attention of the government to them. It will be a reminder to those in power that they cannot be ignored as the country seeks to achieve sustainable development.³⁰ Even if these people do not join or directly get engaged with the local criminals, they become sympathizers who are unwilling to help the government in fighting them.

Ideological Differences

Ideological differences is a major issue in the fight against proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa. Chad is one of the countries where ideological differences have often led to political instability. The Muslims in the north of the country believe that the country should embrace Islamic principles and practices in socio-political leadership.³¹ They desire a constitution that captures principles of Islam. On the other hand, the Christians in the south of the country have a completely opposite ideological aspirations. They are not only opposed to having a country governed by Sharia laws but feel that there is a need to embrace Christian principles. These ideological differences are so deeply entrenched in the political beliefs and practices in the country that it becomes difficult to reach a consensus.

Every political leader feels that they have a responsibility to represent the interest of their people at the national level. It explains where there are sometimes major stalemates in the legislature when trying to discuss matters of national interest. Nigeria is another West African country where the population of Christians is almost equal to that of Muslims. Cases of ideological differences sometimes emerge, threatening national peace and security, and making it difficult to fight organized crime in some part of the country. In Cameron, the Anglophones have organized resistance against the Francophone-dominated government, often considering gaining independence from the perceived oppressive rulers.³² The ideological differences in Cameroon between the Francophone and Anglophones has undermined efforts to effectively fight the proliferation of weapons across and within its borders.

Religious Intolerance

Religious intolerance, just like ideological indifferences, can significantly affect the ability of the region to fight the proliferation of small arms and light weapons. According to Soullier et al., some extremists groups have emerged in some parts of West Africa with rigid perception towards way of life.³³ For instance, the ISIS has strongly convinced that neutralizing a non-Muslim, especially in cases of conflict, it not a crime, and that such an individual would be rewarded. The belief has encouraged some of the worst crimes against humanity. The emergence of extremism in the region has created the demand for weapons. There are those who need weapons to defend themselves against the perceived enemy who is not aligned to their faith. Then there is the section of the society who need these weapons to allow them engage in what they believe to be holy wars. The intolerance has created an environment where a significant section of the population in the country believe that conflicts can only be effectively addressed through military and militia operations.

Theoretical Concepts

The proliferation of weapons in West Africa has resulted in a serious problem of insecurity in the region. The problem can be addressed using various theories and concepts that can help in understanding the current situations. Olabisi et al. believe that using theories may help in explaining a phenomenon that may otherwise appear to be absurd.³⁴ The current problem in West Africa is affecting a significant number of the locals. It limits economic progress, drives away foreign direct investment, and results in the loss of innocent lives. However, a section of the population in the region still feel it is justifiable and reasonable to gain access and use firearms to achieve their goals. This section focuses on theories that can help in explaining the phenomenon.

Frustration-Aggression Theory

This theory, which embraces the psychodynamic approach, has gained massive popularity over the recent past. According to Agbo, Lenshie, and Boye, the theory holds the view that when a person gets frustrated, they develop a drive to be hostile towards that which they believe to be their source of frustration.³⁵ For instance, when a group of people in the society believe that the government is the source of their frustration, they will develop aggressive tendencies when dealing with government agents. This theory holds that when it becomes impossible for them to act aggressively towards the perceived source of frustration, an individual can misdirect their aggression to someone else.³⁶ This is the case with the activities of terror groups such as Boko Haram in Nigeria.

The perceived aggressor for Boko Haram is the government of Nigeria. They blame it for many social injustices in parts of northeastern Nigeria. It is common for this terror group to attack government installations such as police stations and even small military camps. However, the opportunity to attack such facilities are often rare. In many cases, military camps are so well protected and ready for such attacks that doing so would be suicidal. They are therefore forced to redirect their attacks to other institutions that they believe will offer little to no military resistance. Schools have been the soft targets that this criminal gang has been targeting. Attacking a girls’ boarding school is one of the most cowardly acts that Boko Haram has been accused of and condemned for by the international community. These criminals succeeded in acquiring the weapons they needed to commit the atrocities but lacked the courage to attack the military or the police. This theory explains that when such people are able to attack their target, they tend to redefine their focus to identify an easy target. In so doing, they hope to cause frustration among the general public and to create a perception that the government has failed in its mandate to protect its citizens.

Human Security Theory

Social security theory is a concept that helps in explaining the effort that the government and other stakeholders have made to fight crime. It holds the belief that it is crucial to defend fundamental human rights, especially from severe and pervasive threats.³⁷ It is important to understand how human needs are classified. Using Maslow’s theory of needs, shown in figure 2.1 below, the very basic need of humans classified as physiological needs. They include food and water among others. Without these needs, a person cannot survive, as Eze and Frimpong observe.³⁸ It is important to note that safety and security needs, which are in the second tier of the ladder, are secondary to the physiological needs although both are classified as basic needs.

It means that it is possible for one to sacrifice security and safety needs to get access to physiological needs, explained by both human security needs and Maslow’s theory of needs. One is assured of death if they are denied access to food and water. In some parts of West Africa, the locals have a feeling that they have been neglected by the government. At times they are faced with famine, forcing them to find unconventional ways of finding meals. One of the options that they have is to get involved in criminal activities. They get into crime as militia or their enablers, facilitating the movement of weapons and other consumables, as Agbebaku and Osimen note.³⁹ They are aware that their actions may endanger their lives or freedom, especially when they are attacked or arrested by government agencies. However, they lack any alternative means of earning a living. They are forced to take the only gamble that is available for them. They focus on meeting physiological needs, without which they cannot survive, and hope that their security needs will not be adversely compromised. All the other needs, shown in the figure below, are secondary when one is faced with the inability to meet physiological needs.

Social Modeling Theory

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, also known as social modeling theory, has gained massive popularity over the recent past when explaining human behavior. The theory holds the belief that people learn specific behavior through observation.⁴¹ It effectively explains how children acquire knowledge and how some people get to embrace specific behavior. It holds the belief that one gets embrace what they constantly observe. A given practice may be abnormal to a section of the society, but when another group constantly observe specific events, they get to embrace it as being normal. When a child grows up in an environment where there is a constant use of weapons, it becomes normal for them to handle guns. They need little persuasion to join criminal gangs and terror outfits because they grew up observing violence.

The same is the case with religious intolerance that is common in the region. When a child is indoctrinated at their earliest stages of development, constantly reminded that a section of the society are inferior to the rest because of their religion, they get to embrace the belief. They cannot be convinced otherwise because they were constantly reminded that superiority of people is defined by their religion. They develop the belief that lives of some people are less important compared to others. An individual with such a mind can easily be involved in mass murders, which is common among terrorists. They find it important to have firearms as a way of neutralizing what they have been made to believe is a threat to their lives and religion. Such beliefs have fueled the demand for small arms and light weapons in parts of West Africa.

Research Method

The previous chapter has provided a detailed review of the literature. In this chapter, the focus is to discuss ways in which data was collected and analyzed to inform this study. As Hennink, Hutter, and Bailey note, once a review of the literature is conducted, it is often advisable to find ways of addressing any possible knowledge gaps identified.⁴² The chapter discusses the data sources used, data collection method, how bias was managed, limitations in the study, and ethical consideration.

Data Sources

When conducting research, one of the critical factors that one has to consider is data sources. A researcher should clearly define how they intend to respond to the research questions and achieve the aim of the study.⁴³ Data should be gathered from reliable sources and should take into consideration the time and resources available for the study. In this study, the researcher collected data from two main sources. The first source was secondary data, obtained from books and journal articles. It formed the basis of the literature review, which has been discussed in chapter 2 above.

The literature review provided background information on the topic based on what other scholars have found out in their research. It made it possible to identify contradictions and gaps in the existing body of knowledge in this field of study. The second source was primary data collected from a case study. It was essential to conduct the case study to have a detailed understanding of the issue under investigation. This chapter provides a detailed explanation of how information was collected and processed to respond to the research questions.

Case Study

A case study is essential when a researcher seeks to address gaps in knowledge, contradictions in the existing knowledge body, or new issues that are yet to be properly investigated. A researcher can choose various methods of collecting data for the case study. Some of the common methods of collecting data include surveys, interviews and focus groups, social media monitoring, observation, transactional tracking, online tracking, and the use of forms. The choice of the method depends on the time available for the study, resources at disposal of a researcher, and availability of the respondents for face-to-face or online interviews. Currently, a researcher cannot ignore COVID-19 measures when planning to collect primary data.

Although the global community has developed and administered vaccines to a large population across the world, many individuals and institutions are still keen on observing strict containment measures. As such, a respondent or an institution can reject a physical interaction between a researcher and respondent unless there is an assurance that participants will be protected from the spread of the virus.⁴⁴ Taking into consideration these factors, the researcher opted to use available case studies. The case study focused on activities of Boko Haram, one of the major terror groups that has been able to acquire and use firearms to achieve their selfish goals.

Managing Biases

When collecting data, it is important to take care of biases that may result in the collection and analysis of misleading data. In this study, the researcher had to take care of personal biases. Based on personal knowledge and the review of the literature, a researcher can easily be influenced to narrow the focus into a specific area instead of being objective when collecting data. To avoid personal bias when collecting data, the researcher made sure that personal knowledge did not dictate the data collected. It was equally necessary to manage biases from the case studies. The researcher made sure that the case study analyzed was based on information collected by unbiased entities that does not lean either towards the terror group or government agencies. The goal was to ensure that the case identified was objective and focused on addressing the identified problem.

Limitations and Delimitations

It is important to identify some of the challenges that the researcher encountered when collecting data from participants. One of the greatest challenges that was faced was identifying individuals who have an understanding of the nature of this problem. It was desirable to find law enforcement agencies involved in the fight against smuggling of arms or individuals who are directly involved in the trade.⁴⁵ The problem was that the law enforcement agents were keen not to share their intelligence, fearing that criminals may understand their strategies. On the other hand, those involved in the trade feared that the researcher could be a government agent keen on finding their ways of trade and facilitating the government with information capable of destroying the trade.

It was challenging to find an effective way of collecting primary data. Using case study, the researcher focused on activities in North Eastern Nigeria, to understand how Boko Haram accesses its weapons and the impact of the proliferation. Using case study, the researcher mainly relied on secondary data sources as the main source of information.⁴⁶ Fortunately, the researcher was able to observe how activities of these armed criminals affected local business persons within the affected regions.

Ethical Considerations

When conducting research, it is essential to observe ethical concerns, especially when handling human subjects. Howitt explains that it is a fundamental responsibility of a researcher to ensure that specific rules and regulations are observed.⁴⁷ One of the important ethical concerns that one has to observe is the need to protect the identity of the participants. The proliferation of weapons in West Africa is a highly sensitive and emotive topic. It is easy for those who directly benefit from the movement of these weapons to consider a respondent a betrayer or a government spy. When one agrees to provide information about activities involved in the smuggling and movement of guns, they are putting their lives in danger.⁴⁸ As such, it is the cardinal responsibility of a researcher to ensure that the identity of participants is protected as much as possible.

To achieve this goal, the researcher opted to ensure that individuals identified in the case study were not named in the report. This strategy was meant to ensure that it would not be possible for anyone to trace those who are focused on in the case study. It was meant to protect them from any form of attack by those who may have opinions contrary to what they presented. As an academic paper, it was equally essential to observe rules set by the school. This paper had to be free from any form of plagiarism, as Deplano and Tsagourias recommend and as the rules and regulations of the school demands.⁴⁹ I had to also ensure that the report is completed within the time that had been set by the school.

Analysis and Discussion

The previous chapter focused on discussing methods used to collect and analyze data. In this chapter, the focus is to present findings and provide a detailed discussion. As explained in the methodology, the researcher conducted a case study of Boko Haram in Nigeria, Chad, Niger, and Cameroon. This terror organization has remained successfully in amassing weapons and causing security concerns within the region.

Case Study: How Boko Haram’s Access to SALW Affects Regional Security

Jamā’at Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da’wah wa’l-Jihād, popularly known as Boko Haram, is a terror outfit that is domiciled in the northeastern part of Nigeria but also active in neighboring countries of Niger, northern Cameroon, and Chad.⁵⁰ The terrorist organization was founded in 2002 by Mohammed Yusuf to promote Islamic principles in Nigeria and later overthrow the government. The creation of the organization was made possible by the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in the region. Ravi, Snyder, and Rivers explains that because of corruption in the law enforcement agencies, most of the firearms that these criminals used were government weapons.⁵¹ They were also able to access additional weapons from neighboring countries because of the porous international borders in the region. Moving of the weapons from one country to the other has been easy because of limited coordinated efforts by regional governments.

The activities of this terrorist organization has had a serious implication on regional security. According to Byman, this organization started by targeting civilians, considered to be a soft target.⁵² As the militants got more sophisticated firearms, they escalated their attacks to include military bases and police stations. They also increased their targets on schools, religious institutions, and other government installations. A report by Solomon shows that Boko Haram has been responsible for the death of over 300,000 children in Northeastern Nigeria and parts of Cameroon, Chad, and Niger.⁵³ It has also displaced more than 2.3 million people, mostly in regions that it controls.

The militant group has been blamed for regional food crisis because of its wanton attack on farmers. It has made farming impossible in some parts of West Africa. In other cases, it would attack farmers and steal their produce, making this economic activity unsustainable to the locals, as Onditi and Odera observe.⁵⁴ It has also made it almost impossible for businesspersons to trade freely. They use extortion and unjustified attacks to frustrate local businesses and to generate income to support their operations. The regular attacks on schools in the region has affected learning among the local children. The constant fear of a possible attack by the criminals has driven away some of the best teachers to other safer parts of the country, compromising the quality of education in northern part of the country. These terrorists have rendered parts of the country ungovernable, especially in their home state of Borno.

Efforts to neutralize this terrorist organization have failed to bear the desired fruits. In 2009, Nigerian government launched an offensive that led to the assassination of its founding leader, Mohammed Yusuf.⁵⁵ However, the militants retreated to neighboring countries of Cameroon and Chad, where they regrouped and emerged stronger. In 2021, the Nigerian government launched another attack that is believed to have neutralized Yusuf’s successor, Abubakar Shekau. A new leader has since been installed and the organization is still as dangerous as it has always been. It has created serious political instability and security concerns in the region that has made it difficult to attract foreign direct investment. A coordinated attack and intelligence sharing by regional governments is believed to be the best way of dealing with the group.

Social and Psychological Implications of the Proliferation

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa has had a major impact on regional security. The security concern can be discussed from the perspective of social and psychological implications. Tar and Bala explain that when there are easy ways of accessing weapons, the social life of people within the affected region is directly affected.⁵⁶ The following are some of the major social and psychological implications of this problem.

Kidnapping and Human Trafficking

One of the major security concerns in parts of West Africa where the problem of proliferation of weapons is common is the issue of kidnapping. According to White, when young jobless but energetic men have access to weapons, they will try and find every means of using the arm to earn a living.⁵⁷ Kidnapping and human trafficking is often one of the common strategies that they use to achieve their goals. Jones et al. opined that such criminals would target businesspersons, their family or friends, or business associates.⁵⁸ The intention of kidnapping would be to demand for ransom before they can release their captives. The problem is that sometimes things do not go as planned, and it is common for a victim to die while in their custody.

The criminals can deliberately kill their captive when the ransom is not paid as per their demands. They may also kill the captive if they have a feeling that their identity may be revealed when they are set free. Some would kill the victim just to pass a message to the larger population that consequences of defying them can be dire. It is also possible that a person who is kidnapped may die because of the torture or the conditions they are exposed to during the period that they are held captives.

Human trafficking has remained a major problem in the 21^st century despite the major efforts that stakeholders have put in place to address it. Some of these criminals would kidnap people with the primary intention of trafficking them to other parts of the world where they would be enslaved. Abdulai explains that the Middle East has remained a popular destination for people who are taken abroad to become domestic workers.⁵⁹ The majority of the victims are women who would end up becoming housekeepers in the Arab world. The real beneficiaries of their work are the traffickers who are paid for the work that these victims undertake.

Cases have been reported where the primary goal of the kidnapper is to sexually abuse their victims. In 2014, a group of heavily armed Boko Haram militants raided a girl’s boarding school in northern part of Nigeria. They took with them 279 girls, mostly Christians, who were between the ages of 16 to 18 years, as Saul reports.⁶⁰ The young girls were later married off to the militias and kept in regions that the criminals control. A few girls were able to escape while others were rescued by government officials. However, Saul notes that over 100 girls are yet to return to their families, seven years after their kidnapping.⁶¹ It is believed that some of these girls have died in the hands of the terrorists.

In December 2020, Boko Haram struck again, this time targeting a boys’ boarding school. They were able to kidnap 300 boys from the institution, as Goertz and Streitparth observe.⁶² There were fears that they would be forced to join the terror group as fighters. However, they were later released, but the victims were left psychologically unstable. In March 2021, a group of heavily-armed men attacked a boarding school the northern state of Niger.⁶³ The criminals killed one students and kidnaped 42 people, majority of whom were students. These criminals have successfully instilled the belief among the locals that they can strike at any time, and that they are highly unpredictable. The locals are also convinced that the government cannot guarantee their security despite the assurance that it often gives.

Loss of Lives and Destruction of Properties

The biggest security concern that is directly linked to the proliferation of small arms and light weapons is the wanton murders that have been witnessed in the region. According to Goertz and Streitparth, terror groups, insurgents, and criminal gangs use these weapons to achieve selfish interests, and in many cases, the real victims are innocent citizens.⁶⁴ Boko Haram is one of the terror outfits in the region that have caused numerous deaths and maimed several without any proper justification. On November 30, 2020, heavily-armed militants, who were later identified as Boko Haram, attacked farmers in a rice farm and massacred 110 innocent and hard-working citizens. They stole their produce after committing the atrocities, as Villalon reports.⁶⁵ This terror unit attacks institutions and villages indiscriminately, killing people in the process. The report shows that the gang has killed more than 35,000 people in Nigeria since 2009. The government is yet to neutralize it, partly because of the ease with which the militia can access weapons. It means that it is likely to continue with its murderous campaigns.

Chad is another country where cases of murder have been reported to be directly linked to the proliferation of firearms. In August 5, 2021, Villalon reports that a military unit that was on patrol in the volatile region of Lake Chad were attacked by jihadist, and five officers lost their lives.⁶⁶ It is believed that Boko Haram militants have been actively involved in numerous murders in Lake Chad as it seeks to expand its operations beyond the Nigerian border. The situation in Lake Chad region has been worsened by the entry of ISIS fighters, mainly from Libya. These criminals often organize random attacks, primarily targeting civilian population, which is considered a soft target.

In Cameroon, several deaths directly linked to the activities of extremists and insurgents have been reported in the past. On January 9, 2021, secessionist rebels attacked different parts of the country simultaneously, as Villalon reports.⁶⁷ The reports indicated that more than 18 people were killed, including military officers, while many others were wounded. Like in Chad, reports have indicated that Boko Haram has infiltrated parts of Cameroon and it is responsible for some of the murders that have been reported in parts of this country. Just like in Nigeria, this terror unit often targets learning institutions where they know they will meet little resistance but the impact of their attack would be felt around the world.

Whenever there criminals launch their attacks, there is always the loss of property. One of the main source of income for these criminals is robbery with violence. They would target rice farms to steal the produce from farmers, as Solomon observes.⁶⁸ Some of them would target goods on transit, leading to massive losses for the businesspersons who are affected. A common strategy that jihadist fighters use to attack government installations that are secure is through bombing. Buildings would be destroyed, cars blown up, and business entities in such premises directly affected.

Economic activities in the affected regions are often affected significantly because of the constant fears of attack. Farmers who have been consistently attacked and robbed of their produce by these criminals would often consider exploring other less risky economic options. As they move away from farming, the regional food security is directly affected.⁶⁹ Businesses in regions controlled by Boko Haram have to pay protection fees to the criminals to avoid being attacked. Such payments increases the cost of operation, and some are soon phased out of business. Those who fail to pay the protection fee would be attacked, their businesses robbed, and some would die in the process. The overall effect is that economic activities are paralyzed in these regions where criminal gang activities are prevalent. The majority of people who live in these region have to rely on donations or criminal activities to earn a living.

Disruption of Education

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa has significantly affected education in the region. As mention in the cases above, terror outfits are using these weapons to target learning institutions, which are often considered to be soft targets. The implications of such attacks are often dire, to learners, parents, teachers, and other relevant stakeholders. When over 270 Chibok girls were kidnapped from their school, they were married off to the militia. It took several years before the majority of them could be rescued. By that time, most of these girls had children they had to take care of after the rescue. It meant that their learning came to a sudden and premature end. They left when they were students, but came back as young parents.⁷⁰ It is painful when a young girl is forced to become a parent at a time when she should be studying.

Teachers have been keen to avoid being posted in regions that are controlled by the criminals, especially the Northeastern Nigeria. According to Onditi and Odera, cases have been witnessed where teachers are executed without any justification whenever the terrorists would attack a school.⁷¹ Any attempt by a teacher to protect students during attack would easily lead to death. Some of the teachers would also be abducted during these attacks. As such, the majority of teachers are unwilling to work in these reasons because they rightfully fear for their lives. The real victims are students who are denied the opportunity to have some of the best teachers who can help them excel in their exams. Onditi and Odera note that it forces the government to hire locals who are able to teach despite the existence of the threat.⁷² Some of these volunteers are not fully trained teachers, which means that the quality of education is compromised.

Delivering of education materials to regions where gun-related violence is common is another major challenge. Saul explains that some of these criminals would waylay trucks and steal materials meant for schools in the region.⁷³ When they attack a school, they would target any valuables that they can later sell. The threat that transporters are exposed to, limits timely delivery of government donations to these schools. Students in these regions are forced study without access to proper library and laboratory services. It compromises their ability to pass the national exams. The condition would be made worse in case of an attack during examination periods. Because their goal is to create disharmony, these criminals would target examination centers with the aim of disrupting exams.⁷⁴ These challenges have serious implications on students.

Disruption of Social Life of the Locals

In a region where there is a widespread use of illegal firearms, the social life of the locals is significantly affected. According to Saul, in parts of West Africa where organized crime activities are common, many locals are forced to abide by the rules and regulations of the criminals.⁷⁵ It is common for some of these extremists to ban certain activities that they consider to be socially unacceptable. They can ban going to church, having weddings in certain ways, and wearing certain clothes, especially for women.⁷⁶ In such cases, the social freedom of the people in that region will be taken away, and they will be forced to lead a life as defined by the criminals. Social events such as major games may be avoided in these regions for security purposes. Football is the most popular sports in the entire West Africa region. Such events tend to bring people together despite the possible political or religious differences. However, there is always a constant fear that extremists may take advantage of such events to plan and execute mass murders, especially through bombing or gun violence.⁷⁷ As such, these tournaments are rarely organized in these regions. It is frustrating to the locals when they are denied the opportunity to engage in major social events because of the constant threat of a possible attack.

Fear and Trauma among the Local Community

Constant attacks and frustration that the locals face because of the activities of the organized criminal gangs causes them fear and trauma. For instance, the school girls who were attacked, kidnapped, and sexually abused for several years have not overcome their ordeal emotionally. Although they were finally released, the majority stiff suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Besides being raped and tortured, they also witnessed the death of some of their colleagues. They have to contend with the fact that their education has come to a sudden end. It is not easy for them to deal with the pain. Although these victims have been taken through several sessions of therapy, it may take some time for them to fully overcome the condition.

People living in areas controlled by the criminals are always in constant fear. It is not easy to predict when or where the extremists would strike. Their attacks are often unprovoked and they currently prefer targeting civilians because they know that there will be limited resistance.⁷⁸ The business community is constantly living in fear because they are some of the soft targets. Religious institutions, especially churches, are also aware that there can be an attack at any time. Living in constant fear may also cause emotional trauma, especially when the threat is real and with devastating consequences. The locals also get frustrated by the fact that the region is shunned by major investors who could have otherwise created employment opportunities and uplifted lives of the majority.

Economic Implications

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons have had a devastating consequences on the economic activities in the region. According to Agbo, Lenshie, and Boye, the ease with which organized criminal gangs and extremists accesses guns is a major cause of concern.⁷⁹ Once they have these weapons, it becomes almost impossible for the government to control their activities. They create their own sphere of influence where they can extort money and dictate terms of trade on all the economic activities in the region. The following are some of the direct impacts of the proliferation of arms on the economic activities in the affected regions.

Disruption of Economic Activities in the Affected Regions

One of the greatest concerns of the lawlessness created by the proliferation of arms in West Africa is the disruption of economic activities among the locals. It was explained that cases where Boko Haram and other organized criminal gangs attack local farmers and steal their produce have become common. Agbo, Lenshie, and Boye argue that farmers would count losses as they are denied the opportunity to benefit from their effort.⁸⁰ These criminals have also developed the tendency of extorting from the local businesses as a means of increasing their revenues. Amiard explains that they have developed a tendency of demanding for protection fee from the locals to ensure that they are not attacked.⁸¹ The fee has the effect of increasing the cost of operation, which has to be passed to the clients. The high cost of goods makes them unfordable for a section of the society, which directly affects the sales volume for the local companies. Firms that fail to pay the fee are always targeted as a way of reminding others of the dangers of failing to make the payment.

There is the constant fear among the locals that they can be targeted by the criminals when they engage in specific businesses. White explains that some extremists are keen on eliminating business activities that they consider being contrary to religious beliefs and practices that they embrace.⁸² It means that before one can start any business, one factor that they have to consider is its acceptance to the extremist gangs. Sometimes it is not easy to determine if it is acceptable until one is attacked. The lack of government control in these areas means that the law is not respected. Business entities in these regions know that it is almost impossible to take a client or a supplier to court in case there is a breach of agreement. The government agencies are unable to execute court orders in these regions. As such, local companies have to find ways of protecting themselves from unscrupulous business partners.

High Rates of Unemployment

Unemployment is another major issue that is directly attributed to the insecurity in the regions where guns are easily accessible to criminals. According to White, the issue of unemployment in these regions is cyclic in nature.⁸³ The insecurity makes it difficult for large corporations to freely operate in these regions because of the constant fear of an attack. These entities are forced to find alternative places where they are assured of their security. As such, the locals are left with no gainful employment and a source of income. They are forced to get involved in illegal activities, such as smuggling of weapons or joining the criminal gangs. Such actions create further insecurity in the region, which drives away even the small business entities that cannot survive in a lawless and dangerous business environment. The effect is that there will be a worse problem of unemployment among the locals.

The government has been unable to promote economic growth in these regions. White observe that organized criminal gangs have made it difficult for government installations to operate.⁸⁴ Schools are regularly attacked and students and staff members kidnapped. Such actions tend to paralyze operations of these institutions. In some cases, the government has been forced to shut down schools, police camps, and other installations because of the fear of a possible attack. These institutions create business for the locals who supply them with consumables. When they are closed, there will not only be loss of business to these suppliers but also a loss of employment to the locals who are working in the institutions in different capacities.

Limited Direct Foreign Investment

Foreign direct investment is one of the most effective ways of promoting economic growth in a country. Africa has become one of the attractive markets for foreign companies keen on expanding their market share. Amiard notes that Nigeria remains the most attractive market in the region because of a number of factors.⁸⁵ It is currently the largest economy in the continent, having overtaken South Africa. It is also the most populous nation in Africa, with over 200 million people.⁸⁶ The country is also one of the leading producers of crude oil in the world. Its relatively large population of skilled and semi-skilled workers also makes it an attractive market. However, it has been unable to attract foreign investors because of insecurity in some parts of the country.

One of the key conditions for a firm to consider investing in a foreign country is security. They need to be assured that their businesses will not be attacked or subjected to unnecessary extortion once they start operations. Activities of organized criminal gangs has been a major concern to foreign investors. It is not possible to predict when or where these criminals would attack. The random nature of their actions also makes it difficult to plan for effective response.⁸⁷ As such, foreign investors would consider other secure destinations where their operations would not be disrupted. It denies the region the opportunity to achieve the desired rate of economic growth.

Food Insecurity in the Region

Traditionally, severe rainfall deficit was considered the main cause of food insecurity across many parts of West Africa. However, insecurity has become a major factor that leads to food insecurity in the region. According to Úrsula and Brauch, there has been constant wars in some parts of West Africa that limits the ability of people to engage in meaningful food production.⁸⁸ Energetic men who should be actively involved in farming often find themselves at the forefront of these wars. They are either in the offensive or defending their communities from external aggression. The elderly and young children are not strongly enough to be actively involved in food production. It means that most of the arable lands in the affected parts of the country cannot be cultivated.

The locals are also faced with wanton attacks by the criminals. There are cases when rice fields would be set on fire just to punish local farmers who are considered unwilling to corporate with the criminals. In other cases, Boko Hara would attack farmers during the harvesting period and steal from them their product. The effect of such attacks is that the local farmers get seriously discouraged from farming. They are unable to benefit from their economic activities. As the business of farming become less sustainable to the local farmers, most of them consider engaging in other forms of earning a living. Consequently, the region becomes food insecure and has to rely on donations.

The Reduced Budget on Economic Development Projects

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa has been blamed for the reduced budget on economic development projects. The primary goal of the government, as Úrsula and Brauch rightfully points out, is to create political stability.⁸⁹ The economy can only be developed when the local population is assured of their safety and security. It means that whenever there is a security problem, the priority of the government will first focus on addressing such a concern. In regions controlled by Boko Haram, government either stopped or significantly reduced developmental projects. Major roads or railway roads cannot be constructed in these parts of the country.

Construction of dams that can facilitate improved farming also has to be put on hold in these regions. Instead of building more schools and institutions of higher learning, the government is forced to shut down the existing ones and transfer learners to parts of the country considered secure. Limited developmental projects further affects economic growth of the region. Poor transport network makes it difficult for the few farmers to take their produce to the market. The business community cannot easily move goods and services from one market to the other. In many cases, transportation is reduced to traditional means such as the use of donkeys or carts. The poor infrastructure further limits the ability to attract foreign direct investment. These problems are common in all the West African states where there are high proliferation of weapons, especially in Chad, Nigeria, and Cameroon.

Political and Diplomatic Implications

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons have created political and diplomatic problems in the affected parts of West Africa. According to Úrsula and Brauch, extremist groups such as Boko Haram has created tension in West Africa, especially its ability to move from one part of the country to another. The issue not only affects the sovereignty and democracy but also creates diplomatic challenges among countries.

Threat to a Country’s Democracy and Sovereignty

The ease with which weapons can be accessed by organized criminal gangs has compromised democracy in different parts of West Africa. In Nigeria, these criminals have made it impossible for electorates to choose their representatives. They use intimidation, threats, and physical harm to ensure that the locals cannot have free and fair elections. In regions where they know their candidates are unpopular, they create insecurity to ensure that there is voter apathy.⁹⁰ In other places, they force voters to select a preferred candidate who can protect their interest once they are in power. It means that the democratic right of the locals to choose their preferred leaders is lost.

The sovereignty of the state is significantly affected by the activities of criminal gangs. In Cameroon, there is a serious problem of governability in the northern part, around Lake Chad region. The government has not been able to exercise its full authority in the region that is largely controlled by Boko Haram.⁹¹ A condition has been created where the state is denied the ability to control activities within its borders. The insurgents and terrorists in this region are so well armed that efforts by the government to control them has failed. Many people have been displaced from the region and government forces have been forced to retreat from these volatile regions.

The Emergence of Vigilante Groups

The constant security problem in parts of West Africa has led to the emergence of vigilante groups. Civilians rely on the government to ensure that they are protected from activities of criminals. The problem is that the government has failed to contain activities of terrorists and other major organized criminal gangs. As the locals continue to be oppressed, Bailey explains that at some point they develop the need to protect themselves.⁹² The only way of protecting themselves and their properties is to use the same weapons that their oppressors use to protect themselves. The fact that small arms and light weapons are easily accessible motives them to form vigilante groups. In Nigeria, various vigilante groups have emerged to help protect the locals.

In south-western part of the country dominated by the Yoruba, O’odua People’s Congress has emerged as a powerful vigilante group.⁹³ In the eastern part of the country, the Bakassi Boys remains powerful, while in the northern part of the country, Hisba is the most powerful vigilante. Although the aim of these vigilantes is to protect the interest of the locals, they sometimes degenerate to become security concern to the locals, especially when they resort to extortion as a means of earning their income. They also limit the ability of government forces to restore peace and order, especially if they view the law enforcement agencies as being unfriendly to the locals. The emergence of the vigilantes further complicates efforts to address the problem of proliferation of arms. They insist on holding their weapons as a way of protecting lives and their properties.

Poor Perception of the Region on the International Stage

There is the problem of poor perception that the region will have in the international stage. As mentioned above, a sovereign country should be able to exercise control within its borders. It should have the capacity to protect its citizens from any form of aggression. However, it has been noted that some West African countries such as Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon have been unable to control parts of their borders. It is a sign of weakness and poor government to the international community.⁹⁴ Some of these extremists and vigilantes have cited oppression by the government as the reason why they fight for secession. It creates the image of an oppressive government that has failed to create a democratic space. At a time when the region has witnessed several cases of military coups, these democracies lose the moral authority to intercede and promote civilian rule in Africa. It helps reemphasize the belief of dictators around the world that democracy, as a form of governance has failed.

Diplomatic Challenges

Proliferation of small arms and light weapons has caused diplomatic concerns in some of the West African countries. Nigeria and Chad have enjoyed a cordial relationship for many years. However, tension sometimes arise because of mistrust caused by insurgents and extremists in both countries. In 1983, the Nigerian government accused Chadian troops of invading a Nigerian island in Lake Chad and expelling neutral Nigerian troops from its territory⁹⁵. Chadian authorities blamed Nigeria troops of supporting the separatists by providing them with arms and ammunition while pretending to be neutral in the war. The mistrust is largely caused by activities of the insurgents in the region. There is always a constant suspicion that one government is making weapons available to forces opposed to the government. Such suspicions tend to affect diplomatic relationship between the affected countries. On the other hand, Nigeria’s government has also expressed concerns that some of its neighbors are making it difficult to fight extremists. Besides the feeling that some of these governments are providing weapons, there is also the feeling that they have made it possible for these criminals to escape from Nigeria in case there is a govern offensive.⁹⁶ Most of these organized criminal gangs thrive along the national borders in the region. When they are under an attack by one country, they easily escape to the neighboring nation. They are aware that troops of one country cannot launch an attack in a foreign country. The constant suspicion has limited the capacity of these nations to work as a unit in the fight against organized crime.

Necessary Efforts to Address the Problem

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons is a problem that has persisted in parts of West Africa, causing major security concerns. According to Obamamoye, regional governments and local authorities are aware of the consequences of this problem.⁹⁷ As such, there have been efforts to ensure that the problem is addressed. Limiting the ability of criminals to have access to these weapons is the only way of achieving regional security. It will help in ensuring that law enforcement officers can maintain law and order and protect lives and properties of the locals. The problem needs to be addressed both at state and at regional levels.

State-Level Initiatives

Individual countries have a major role to play in an effort to fight the problem of proliferation of arms and light weapons. According to Black-Branch and Fleck, one of the first steps that each government has to take is to fight corruption among the law enforcement agencies.⁹⁸ This problem has partly been blamed on corruption among the officers of the law. Police officers in the region easily accept bribe to ignore criminal activities in the region. Some of the officers even assist these criminals to smuggle guns from one part of the country to another. McCarthy observes that some cases have been reported where law enforcement officers plan attacks of government installations alongside these criminals when they are paid for such services.⁹⁹ The government should get rid of such corrupt leaders or make it impossible for them to work closely with criminals. Fighting corruption will help to ensure that those who are expected to maintain law and order do not get compromised.

Effective training of the police and military officers is needed to help fight organized crime in the region at state level. On April 26, 2021, Boko Haram planned and executed an attack on a military base in Borno. The reports indicated that 18 people were killed, 50 went missing, while 43 were wounded. McCarthy explains that such bold attacks are made possible because these criminals are aware that the officers are poorly trained.¹⁰⁰ They know when to attack and the officers are unable to respond effectively. The government should address such problems by ensuring that its officers are trained on effective mechanisms of responding to such threats.

There is a need to adequately equip officers responsible for fighting organized crime in each country. Cases have been reported where criminals overpower government officers because they are better equipped. McCarthy explains that some of the regional governments have failed to invest in their defense equipment.¹⁰¹ In such cases, terrorists and criminal elements are always assured of having superior capacity to fight government operatives. There is a need to include both land and aerial military attacks when dealing with these criminals. It will limit their capacity to smuggle weapons and attack civilian and military installations.

The morale of military and police officers is another challenge that each country needs to address in this fight. The low morale is often caused by low pay, poor working condition, poor training, and inferior equipment. Each government should address these concerns to maintain a high level of morale among the relevant officers. Attractive remuneration to the officers will help in ensuring that they are not easily corrupt by the criminals. It will also be a reminder to them that the government appreciates the effort that they are making to fight organized crime.

Intelligence gathering is an important initiative when fighting organized crime within a country. McCarthy ¹⁰²opined that for a criminal gang to successfully attack a military base, they must have gathered intelligence that facilitated their execution. It is unfortunate that these criminals, with their limited resources, can successfully gather intelligence against the government. There is a need to address this problem by ensuring that the government can gather intelligence necessary to help officers understand plans of the criminals and execute effective attack.

Object poverty was identified as one of the reasons that is pushing the locals to get involved in the illegal trade of smuggling weapons. Some are even recruited to join these criminal gangs because they lack alternative economic activities. The government should create security necessary for businesses to thrive. They should increase government institutions such as school, police stations, hospitals, and military bases.¹⁰³ These institutions will enhance confidence of investors from other parts of the country. The move will create business for the locals, which will make them resent lawlessness that is promoted by the criminals. Instead of protecting the gangs, the locals will provide intelligence necessary for crushing their illegal operations in the region.

It is necessary to promote the relationship between the locals and law enforcement agencies. Studies have suggested that one of the main problems in the fight against the proliferation of arms in the region is lack of intelligence for the officers. There is a poor relationship between officers and the locals. The locals believe that officers are only interested in brutalizing them without providing sustainable solution. On the other hand, the police believe that the locals are working closely with the criminals, hence the justification for the use of brute force against them. When the criminals get the support of the local communities, fighting crime becomes almost impossible. This unfortunate scenario should be addressed by creating trust between civilians and officers. The government should create a common goal for both and then develop an effective way of realizing that goal.

Regional-Level Strategies

At the regional level, states should come together to solving this problem. The reason why extremist groups, insurgents, and organized criminals have flourished in West Africa is because of the lack of cooperation among those the affected member states. The criminals can easily move from one country when attacked to another, enabling them to expand their territories. Member states can work together in various ways to eliminate this constant threat to regional security.

Sharing of intelligence is one of the most effective ways of fighting criminal elements in the region. When Nigeria gathers information about activities of Boko Haram and their planned targets, the information should be made available to the governments in Chad, Cameroon, Niger, and any other state where this criminal group is actively operating¹⁰⁴. The goal is to ensure that the targeted government has information about potential threat to effectively prepare a counterattack. Sharing intelligence will make it difficult for the criminals to move easily across the borders and commit heinous crimes at will.

Organizing coordinated attacks is essential for the regional government to fight organized crime and proliferation of weapons. Boko Haram and ISIS have become regional menace in West Africa primarily because these criminals can easily move across international borders.¹⁰⁵ They know that once they cross the border of one nation to the next, they cannot be tracked down by the attackers. It is essential for these governments to plan coordinated attacks against these criminals. Instead of one-sided attacks, all the countries can coordinate their efforts to crush the criminals. Nigeria, Chad, Niger, and Cameroon can execute a simultaneous attack against these criminals. Crossing international borders will no longer be a strategy that they can use to avoid arrest or being neutralized. It is an effective way of ensuring that the region is safe.

Challenges of the Current Initiatives and Possible Solutions

The regional community is aware of the current problem and has made an effort to address it. The proliferation of arms in West Africa is affecting the entire region directly or indirectly. It is in the interest of member states of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to find a lasting solution to the insecurity caused by the proliferation. The following are the major challenges that have limited the ability of the region to effectively address the problem.

Limited Goodwill among Political Leaders

The ability to neutralize trade in contraband goods and activities of organized criminal gangs depends on the commitment of the political leaders holding highest offices in the affected countries. Williams argues that there has been a lack of goodwill among the holders of these political offices.¹⁰⁶ As mentioned above, some of these leaders use these criminal entities to win elections. They use the gangs to coerce electorates to vote for them or to create voter apathy in regions that they consider to be stronghold for opposition parties. It means that once they ascend to power, they have to serve the interest of these criminals. They avoid any direct attacks because they feel they might need these criminals at a later date. Others are directly benefiting financially from the activities of the criminals. They get paid by the criminals so that they can ignore their activities. Some of the politicians believe that these criminals are serving the interest of their people. They believe that eliminating them would shift the balance of power against them. A political leader with personal or communal interest in this war instead of embracing national and regional interest is less likely to remain committed to solving the problem.

Poor Intelligence and Counterintelligence Systems

Fighting organized crime requires a coordinated intelligence gathering among all the law enforcement agencies involved in the fight. In the fight against proliferation of weapons in West Africa, the biggest challenge has remained to be the inability to gather and share intelligence. The hostility between law enforcement officers and the locals complicates the efforts to gather intelligence. Even in cases where one country is able to gather intelligence, there is no effective mechanisms through which countries can share the information to help one another to eliminate the problem.

Poor Coordination among the Regional Governments

Criminal entities in modern society have learned the power to coordinate their activities in order to achieve specific common goals. As such, it is upon the governments in the affected regions to ensure that they also coordinate their attacks when seeking to neutralize the threat.¹⁰⁷ The problem is that the regional governments have failed to coordinate their attacks. It makes it easy for these criminals to move from one country to the next when they are under attack. The lack of coordination has also made it easy for the criminals to trade in weapons across international borders.

Limited Resources

The fight against illegal trade and use of arm in West Africa has been significantly affected by limited resources available for the law enforcement agencies in the region. Studies have reported that there are cases where criminal gangs and terrorists use superior weapons to those of the police or the military. It explains the boldness of these criminals that sometimes make them attack military bases and police stations. Individual governments in the affected region have not adequately invested in artillery that would make government officers superior to the criminals. The police and soldiers get demoralized when they realize that the criminals are better equipped to fight than they are. It affects their ability to track their activities and neutralize them to create safe societies.

Selfish Interest by Powerful Local and International Entities

The problem of proliferation of arms in parts of West Africa has been blamed on the selfish interest of local and international entities keen on tapping into local resources. Some of the most unstable parts of West Africa are rich in oil and other natural resources, as Edomah observe.¹⁰⁸ Some of the powerful individuals and organizations are keen on controlling the trade in these natural resources without close control by the government. As such, the political instability and insecurity in these regions serve their interest. These individuals would do anything within their powers to ensure that there is status quo so that they can continue benefiting from these illegal businesses.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Proliferation of small arms and light weapons in West Africa is a major security concern in the region. The study shows that the ease with which criminal-minded individuals have access to weapons has resulted in the emergence of organized crime in the region. Corruption, porous borders, and inability of regional governments to share intelligence has enhanced the capacity of the criminals to access firearms and smuggle them across international borders. The criminal gangs have become bolder and their activities intensified as they increase their weapon stock. They know that they can easily move from one country to another in case one government launches an offensive against them. Cases have been reported where some terror organizations are better equipped than law enforcement agencies, making it impossible to neutralize their activities. It shows that these criminals elements have remained committed to amassing dangerous weapons that can enable them exert their authority in some parts of the country.

The report shows that the implication of the proliferation of firearms in the region has been dire, especially to the locals. It has paralyzed economic activities in Northern Nigeria, parts of Cameroon, Chad, and Niger. These criminals would attack local businesses, stealing their assets, kidnapping people, and imposing illegal fees for those who are allowed to operate. Farmers are attacked and their produce stolen from them, especially during harvesting. It has forced many farmers to quit the trade, a move that has caused a serious food insecurity in the region. It has been difficult to attract foreign direct investment to the regions because of the security concerns. Similarly, the locals are almost paralyzed in their effort to start and sustain business in an area where the criminal elements define rules and regulations that everyone has to observe.

Social lives of those living in the regions controlled by the criminals present another challenge. Cases where schools are attacked and the entire student population kidnaped have been witnessed. Such heinous acts has created fear among parents who no longer trust schools to protect their children. Teachers also fear that their security is not guaranteed by the government. As such, some local schools have been closed because of lack of students and teachers. These institutions are essential in supporting local businesses and creating employment for the youth. It is not safe for people to exercise their religious freedom in some parts of the region because of the constant fear of an attack. The following are the recommendations that the regional government should consider in an effort to address the problem:

• Regional governments should share intelligence on gun smuggling and activities of organized criminal gangs. It would help in executing surprise attacks against the criminals when they least expect it;
• Regional governments should plan and execute coordinated attacks on organized criminal gangs and terrorists operating along international borders. The goal is to ensure that it becomes impossible for the criminals to escape to a neighboring country when one government launches an attack;
• Individual governments should effectively train and properly equip security forces to enable them neutralize criminal gangs in the region. The training and proper facilitation would improve officers’ morale and their capacity to neutralize the threat;
• Individual governments should fight corruption among the security agencies and the political class to ensure that organized criminal entities do not have any form of protection;
• Individual government should economically and politically empower citizens across the country, especially in the regions controlled by the criminal gangs. It will help create an alternative source of income and discourage the locals from joining or supporting the criminals.

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Footnotes

1. Malam, Bashir, “Small Arms and Light Weapons Proliferation and Its Implication for West African Regional Security,” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 4, no. 8 (2014): 260-269.
2. Oluwadare, Joseph, “The Impact of the Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons on the West African States: An Analysis of the Sierra Leone Civil War,” Journal of Studies in Social Sciences 7, no. 2 (2014): 189-209.
3. United Nations Security Council, “Rapid Spread of Small Arms, Light Weapons Still Threatening World Peace, Exacerbating Plight of Civilians in Conflict Zones, Disarmament Chief Tells Security Council,” 8874th Meeting 14656, (2021): 1-18.
4. Olanrewaju, Peter, et al., “Proto-Nationalism and the Insecurity Domino in West Africa: A Study of Côte d’Ivoire and Nigeria,” Proceedings of SOCIOINT 2019- 6th International Conference on Education, Social Sciences and Humanities 24, 26 (2019): 1253-1259.
5. Ehiane, Stanley, and Philani Moyo, “Climate Change, Human Insecurity, and Conflict Dynamics in the Lake Chad Region,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 4, no. (2022): 7-18.
6. Ujunwa, Augustine, Chinwe Okoyeuzu, Ebere Kalu, “Armed Conflict and Food Security in West Africa: Socioeconomic Perspective,” International Journal of Social Economics 46, no. 2, (2019): 182-198.
7. Stambøl, Magdalena, “The Rise of Crimefare Europe: Fighting Migrant Smuggling in West Africa,” European Foreign Affairs Review 24, no. 3 (2019): 287-307.
8. Abdullahi, Abubakar, “Rural Banditry, Regional Security and Integration in West Africa,” Journal of Social and Political Sciences 2, no. 3 (2019): 644-653.
9. Adebajo, Rashid. West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in a Troubled Region. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2004.
10. Egbuta, Ugwumba. The Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons. A Nexus to Asymmetric Threats in Nigeria. München: GRIN Verlag, 2019.
11. Tar, Usman, and Charles Onwurah. The Palgrave Handbook of Small Arms and Conflicts in Africa. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.
12. Camara, Mohamed. Health and Human Security in the Mano River Union: Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Cote d’Ivoire. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2020.
13. Oladejo, Mutiat. Social Protection in Africa. Ibadan: Reamsworth Publishing, 2020.
14. Oshita, Oshita, Ikenna Alumona, and Freedom Onuoha. Internal Security Management in Nigeria: Perspectives, Challenges and Lessons. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
15. Omeje, Kenneth. The Governance, Security and Development Nexus: Africa Rising. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.
16. Wallace, Wendell. Guns, Gun Violence and Gun Homicides: Perspectives from the Caribbean, Global South and Beyond. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022.
17. Akinyele, Rufus, Ton Dietz, and Stephen Ellis. Crime, Law and Society in Nigeria: Essays in Honour of Stephen Ellis. Leiden: Boston, 2019.
18. Akiba, Okon. Preventive Diplomacy, Security, and Human Rights in West Africa. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.
19. Tar, Usman, and Charles Onwurah. The Palgrave Handbook of Small Arms and Conflicts in Africa. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.
20. Úrsula, Oswald, and Hans Brauch. Decolonising Conflicts, Security, Peace, Gender, Environment and Development in the Anthropocene. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021.
21. Green, Christian, and Muhammed Haron. Law, Religion and the Environment in Africa. Stellenbosch: SUN MeDIA, 2020.
22. Amiard, Jeanclaude. Disarmament and Decommissioning in Nuclear Domain. Hoboken: John Wiley, 2021.
23. Bailey, Christopher. Counterterrorism Law and Practice in the East African Community. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff, 2019.
24. McCarthy, Eli. A Just Peace Ethic Primer: Building Sustainable Peace and Breaking Cycles of Violence. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2020.
25. Williams, Paul. Fighting for Peace in Somalia: A History and Analysis of the African Union Mission (amisom), 2007-2017. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
26. Moyo, Inocent, Christopher Nshimbi, and Jussi Laine. Migration Conundrums, Regional Integration and Development: Africa-europe Relations in a Changing Global Order. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.
27. Black-Branch, Jonathan, and Dieter Fleck. Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International Law – Volume V: Legal Challenges for Nuclear Security and Deterrence. The Hague: Asser Press, 2020.
28. Oloruntoba, Samuel. The Political Economy of Colonialism and Nation-Building in Nigeria. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022.
29. Ojo, Adegbola, and Oluwole Ojewale. Urbanisation and Crime in Nigeria. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
30. Camara, Mohamed. Health and Human Security in the Mano River Union: Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Cote D’ivoire. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2020.
31. Edomah, Norbert. Regional Development in Africa. London: IntechOpen, 2020.
32. Luka, Dinshak, and Danfulani Alheri. “ECOWAS and Human Security in West Africa: A Review of the Literature.” Journal of Humanities And Social Science 23, no. 12 (2018): 75-82.
33. Soullier Guillaume et al. “The state of rice value chain upgrading in West Africa.” Global Food Security 25, no. 1 (2020): 1-11.
34. Olabisi Laura et al. “Building Consensus and Increasing Self-Efficacy: Participatory Scenarios as a Tool for Developing Food Security Solutions in West Africa.” Regional Environmental Change 22, no. 21 (2022): 1-9.
35. Agbo, Johnson, Edward Lenshie, and Raji Boye. “From Peacekeeping to Peace Enforcement. ECOWAS and the Regulations of Regional Security.” Conflict Studies Quarterly 1, no. 22 (2018): 18-35.
36. Nwokedi, Michael. “Globalization of Trade in Agriculture under the WTO Regime: Reflections on the Agreement on Agriculture and Food Security in West Africa.” Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences 9, no. 4 (2018): 759-792.
37. Obamamoye, Babatunde. “Trans-State Security Complexes and Security Governance in West Africa.” African Security Review 29, no. 2 (2020): 152-174.
38. Eze, Chukwuemeka, and Osei Frimpong. “Contributions of Early Warning to the African Peace and Security Architecture: The Experience of the West Africa Network for Peacebuilding.” The State of Peacebuilding in Africa 2, no. 4 (2020): 181-194.
39. Agbebaku, Philip, and Goddy Osimen. “Border Security Management and ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement in West Africa.” Canadian Social Science 18, no. 1 (2022): 1-13.
40. Oloruntoba 56.
41. Suleiman, Muhammad. “What Makes Islamist Movements Different? A Study of Liberia’s NPFL and Nigeria’s Boko Haram in West Africa.” Terrorism and Political Violence 32, no. 1 (2020): 119-137.
42. Hennink, Monique, Inge Hutter, and Ajay Bailey. Qualitative Research Methods. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2020.
43. Dawson, Catherine. A-Z of Digital Research Methods. Abingdon: Routledge, 2020.
44. Thanem, Torkild, and David Knights. Embodied Research Methods. London: SAGE Publications, 2019.
45. McClean, Stuart, Isabelle Bray, Viggiani De, Emma Bird, and Paul Pilkington. Research Methods for Public Health. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2020.
46. Noblit, George. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods in Education. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020.
47. Howitt, Dennis. Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology: Putting Theory into Practice. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2019.
48. Jhangiani, Rajiv, Chant Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, Dana Leighton, and Paul Price. Research Methods in Psychology. Surrey: Kwantlen Polytechnic University, 2019.
49. Deplano, Rossana, and Nikolaos Tsagourias. Research Methods in International Law: A Handbook. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2021.
50. Bini, Valerio. “Food Security and Food Sovereignty in West Africa.” African Geographical Review, 37, no. 1 (2018): 1-13.
51. Ravi, Sanjana, Michael Snyder, Caitlin Rivers. “Review of International Efforts to Strengthen the Global Outbreak Response System since the 2014-16 West Africa Ebola Epidemic.” Health Policy and Planning 34, no. 1 (2019): 47-54.
52. Byman, Daniel. Road Warriors: Foreign Fighters in the Armies of Jihad. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2019.
53. Solomon, Hussein. Directions in International Terrorism: Theories, Trends and Trajectories. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.
54. Onditi, Francis, and Josephine Odera. Understanding Violence against Women in Africa: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021.
55. White, Jonathan. Terrorism and Homeland Security. London: Cengage Learning Custom, 2021.
56. Tar, Usman, and Bashir Bala. New Architecture of Regional Security in Africa: Perspectives on Counter-Terrorism and Counter-Insurgency in the Lake Chad Basin. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2020.
57. White, Jonathan. Terrorism and Homeland Security. London: Cengage Learning Custom, 2021.
58. Jones, David, Paul Schulte, Carl Ungerer, and M L. R. Smith. Handbook of Terrorism and Counter Terrorism Post 9/11. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019.
59. Abdulai, Emmanuel. Freedom of Information Law and Good Governance: The Curse of Corruption in Sierra Leone. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022.
60. Saul, Ben. Research Handbook on International Law and Terrorism. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2020.
61. Ibid
62. Goertz, Stefan, and Alexander Streitparth. The New Terrorism: Actors, Strategies and Tactics. Cham: Springer, 2019.
63. Ibid
64. Ibid
65. Villalon, Leonardo. The Oxford Handbook of the African Sahel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021.
66. Ibid
67. Ibid
68. Solomon
69. Ibid
70. Suleiman
71. Onditi, Francis, and Josephine Odera
72. Ibid
73. Saul
74. Ibid
75. Ibid
76. Villalon
77. Ibid
78. Bini
79. Agbo, Johnson, Edward Lenshie, and Raji Boye
80. Ibid
81. Amiard, Jeanclaude
82. White
83. Ibid
84. White
85. Amiard
86. Ibid
87. Ibid
88. Úrsula, Oswald, and Hans Brauch
89. Ibid
90. Ibid
91. Ibid
92. Bailey
93. Ibid
94. Ibid
95. Ibid
96. Amiard, Jeanclaude
97. Obamamoye, Babatunde
98. Black-Branch, Jonathan, and Dieter Fleck
99. McCarthy, Eli.
100. Ibid
101. Ibid
102. Ibid
103. Williams, Paul.
104. Ibid
105. Ibid
106. Ibid
107. McCarthy, Eli.
108. Edomah, Norbert