Introduction
The image of women in Ancient Egypt is predominated by the construct of Nefertiti and few other royalties. However, little is known about women in general and their lives, status, and role in society. Women in Ancient Egypt enjoyed a place almost equal to men. In ancient times the legal status of women in Egypt was divided into four parts – unmarried, married, divorced, and widowed (Johnson, The legal status of women in Ancient Egypt 175).
However, the rights and privileges of women in Egypt were greater than that of the women in Greece in 332 BC, even when Greece conquered Egypt (Robbins 80). A woman in Ancient Egypt had the right to property and could settle legal disputes. Further, she had the right to retain the ownership of her property even after marriage and did not have to give up ownership rights to her husband. Women enjoyed a position of equality with men; however, they were restricted in holding government office (Robbins 80). Nevertheless, the status of women in society was determined by the status of the husband or father (Robbins 80).
This paper documents the role of married women in ancient Egypt. The paper will show the women were perceived when they were married and how their position altered. Marriage is considered to be a social institution that allows human beings to organize an efficient working unit and legitimize children. In Ancient Egypt, the role of marriage was similar to in the most ancient world. From the point of view of women, marriage was a step from childhood to adulthood and a beginning of a new role for her in society. Ancient Egypt shows the position of married women through their sculptures, literature, and paintings.
Marriage was considered to be an important institution, and women were given a prominent place as it is believed that the “Egyptians were a very uxorious race” (Tyldesley 20). Therefore, the paper will inspect the role and status of married women in Egypt in ancient times from a legal and social perspective.
Role of Women
Legal
Marriage was a very open and accepted norm with no legal restriction levied by the state on women as to their choice of groom. Women were free to choose foreigners, slaves, and permitting more than one marriage, and marriage of close relations (Tyldesley 20). Right to the property for married women and their right to private inheritance and inheritance of the community property belonging to the husband was an essential nature of the status of women in Ancient Egyptian society.
A woman after marriage had the right to hold her own property, and therefore was seldom dependent on her husband. She had control over one-third of the property of her husband and had the freedom to dispose of all of the property if she wished to (Robbins 81).
The mean of acquiring property for an Egyptian woman was to gain it as a gift or inheritance from her father or husband. Further, she was allowed to gain property through purchase. Further, the private property a woman brought in form of dowry during her marriage, remained her own, and the husband had no legal claim on it. When a woman is divorced, all her private property will remain her own. Further, her husband must pay the amount settled by law as reimbursement to her.
According to Egyptian law, a wife had the right to one-third of the property of her husband, and the rest two-third was divided among the children. A husband could, however, make a will to increase the share of the wife in his property. In a will, the husband could assign the share that he wanted to give his wife. One such example is imyt-pr of Wah from el-Lahun, a will that the priest named Wah from the pyramid town of Kahun during the Middle Kingdom, made for his wife (Imyt-pr from El-Lahun). In the will states:
“I make the contract for my wife, a woman of the eastern side, Sat-soped’s daughter, Shefet(u), called Teti, consisting of everything which my brother, the Confidential Seal- bearer of the Controller of Works, Ankhren, gave to me, as well as all the possessions at his place, all being what he gave to me … She will give to any whom she will desire, namely her children which she will bear to me. … Moreover, as for these dwellings which my brother, the Confidential Seal-bearer, Ankhren, built for me, my wife will be in them without evicting her from there by anyone.” (Imyt-pr from El-Lahun)
A woman in Egypt had the right to deliver the property received from her husband to whomever she chose. A woman could choose to have a household with another man or could disinherit her children of her private property. One such example was found through the tale of an old woman from Deir el-Medina during the New Kingdom, who disinherited her private property inherited from her first marriage and her father, as well as the community property of her second marriage to four of her eight children (The Will of Naunakht).
Therefore the documents demonstrate the right of women in terms so property. Further, women in Egyptian society had the right to go to law in case of abuse or mistreatment in marriage. One such example is of a woman who went to the Tribunal of Judges to complain about her abusive husband (Document IV – A Woman Charges her Husband with Wife Abuse). The statement of the wife was:
“My husband … made a beating, he made a beating [again] and I caused the … to fetch his mother. He was found guilty and was caused… And I said to him: If you are… in the presence of the court.” (Document IV – A Woman Charges her Husband with Wife Abuse)
The legal state of women in Egypt was that of an equal. A woman also had the right to trade with goods, buy property, and slaves. Therefore, from the legal point of view, a woman was held as an equal in front of the law.
Social
A woman in society was valued for her position as a child bearer, and her role in society was constricted to domestic life. Elite women in ancient Egypt were excluded from bureaucracy, and had their job in domestic life and raising children (Robbins 82). However, men had greater economic wealth than women, as they were paid a government salary. The economic disparity between men and women was evident from the tombs, status, etc. that were erected more by men than women. A wife is considered as an equal according to the decorations of a husband’s tomb, as she participated with him as an equal in all phases of his life on earth (Feucht 315).
A woman’s social position in ancient Egypt is clear from the art of the time. Ancient Egyptian art did not portray an individual rather the ideal that confirmed them. Women were the ideal for progeny. Therefore, the status of women and paintings always depicted women in youthful beauty with accentuated hips and breasts, the body parts associated with childbearing. There are no available paintings, statures, or any other art form depicting older or fuller women.
In terms of marriage, there was no legal age for marriage, however, a document from the 26th Dynasty showed that a father refused to get his daughter married as she had not yet reached marriageable age (Tyldesley 21). Therefore, it is popularly believed that the age was fourteen when the girl’s menstruation began. A woman’s status in society was derived from the name of her husband. Therefore, the disparity in the legal and social status of women in Egypt was high even during ancient times.
The literary text, “The Instructions of the (Vizier) Ptahhotep”, showed that in the Middle Kingdom, a woman is considered to be dependent on her husband due to social factors and not legal restrictions. According to the text, it is the husband’s duty to love and protect his wife, however, he should not allow her to obtain power or go to court:
“When you prosper and found your house and love your wife with ardor, fill her belly, clothe her back; ointment soothes her body. Gladden her heart as long as you live; she is a fertile field for her lord. Do not contend with her in court. Keep her from power, restrain her–her eye is her storm when she gazes. Thus will you make her stay in your house.” (The Instructions of the (Vizier) Ptahhotep cited in Johnson, Women’s Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt 177)
Thus, the social status of women is made clear through this statement. Women definitely had legal rights but were stopped by the social constructs and discourses to take up their legal rights. Further, a woman as a dependent of the husband was cared for and provided shelter to her.
Adultery was one of the most serious crimes for a married woman, and a man indulging in adultery was only frowned upon (Tyldesley 23). Men were expected to respect the chastity of other men’s wives and a liaison between a married man and an unmarried woman was also considered equally bad. A girl was considered to be legally wed when she left the physical protection of her father’s household for her husband’s house (Tyldesley 23).
Therefore, this aspect also indicates that a woman required a male protector, in form of a husband or father, to survive in society. An incident of adultery of a man and the wife of the neighbor is documented in the town of Dier el-Medina. The wife of the husband appealed publicly and the man was asked to erase all relations with the woman. The adulterant woman was subjected to the physical harshness of society (Tyldesley 23).
Legally a woman committing adultery was punishable by death (Tyldesley 23). A papyrus from the New Kingdom demonstrated how a wife was put to death due to her unfaithfulness (Tyldesley 23). The “Tale of Two Brother” (Sheet from the Tale of Two Brothers, Papyrus D’Orbiney) demonstrates how the wife of one brother tries to seduce the brother-in-law and is killed for her disloyalty. Therefore, adultery of a married woman was considered to be a crime to be punishable harshly, and socially such an act was looked down upon.
A woman’s highest aim in life was to bear children. A fertile woman gathered a high position in society as the child-bearer. The high prominence of the concept of fertility in Egyptian society can be found in the emphasized breasts, hips, and nipples in statues and paintings. There was evidence of false nipples added on the mummified status of women. Pregnancy elevated the status of Egyptian women, who gained her husband’s approval, and admiration from relatives and lesser fortunate women. However, Egyptian society was not harsh on women who could not bear children. Men who had a wife who could not bear children could be divorced legally but this was not a socially accepted norm in Egypt. The more accepted concept in Egypt was to adopt a child.
Egyptian world was formed in male and female duality, and females were considered equals in all aspects. Queens of Egypt have often been found in pictographs as crushing the head of the enemies, or as an executioner of prisoners. She has been shown as holding roles as a farmer, princess, administrator, and trader. Therefore, women of Egypt were found to hold different jobs and roles, though their primary role was to manage the domestic life and bearer of children.
Within the household, women were the “mistress of the house” (Robbins 84). In larger households, women were responsible to look after the work of the servants and slaves, and in smaller households, women had to look into the household chores, and looking after children. Women were also responsible for spinning and weaving cotton to make clothes (Robbins 84). Therefore, women’s main role in ancient Egypt was constrained within the household.
Conclusion
Women in Egypt were considered individuals in the eye of law and had their individual rights equal to any man. However, there were social barriers to such laws. Legally, women were more liberated than the Egyptian society warranted. A woman’s place in the society was behind the shadow of a man – be it her husband or father. For a married woman had her rights to property, she was bounded socially by her husband’s wish and his rules. However, women were more liberated and enjoyed greater freedom in ancient Egypt than many other ancient cultures, they could not completely come out of the patriarchal societal norms.
Works Cited
“Document IV – A Woman Charges her Husband with Wife Abuse.” 520BC. Translation for Diotima’s Anthology. Web.
Feucht, Erika. “Women.” Donadoni, Sergio. The Egyptians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997. 315-330. Print.
“Imyt-pr from El-Lahun.” NA. Internet Archive. Web.
Johnson, Janet H. “The legal status of women in Ancient Egypt.” Capel, Anne K., et al. Mistress of the House, Mistress of Heaven: women in ancient Egypt. New York: Hudson Hills, 1996. 175-188. Print.
—. “Women’s Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt.” 2001. University of Chicago – Fathom Archives. Web.
Robbins, Gay. “Women in Egypt.” Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. 80-88. Print.
“Sheet from the Tale of Two Brothers, Papyrus D’Orbiney.” 1185 BC. The British Museum. Web.
“The Will of Naunakht.” NA. Internet Ancient History Sourcebook. Web.
Tyldesley, Joyce. “Marriage and Motherhood in Ancient Egypt.” History Today (1994): 20-26. Print.