Religious Focus
Though general Buddhist practices and Tibetan Buddhism share a number of features, there are areas in which the two differ. Tibetan Buddhism focuses on the techniques, teachings, and vows of the Theravada and the cosmology and philosophical content of the Mahayana. Additionally, the vast majority of the teachings of Vajrayana were exclusively preserved in Tibet and are the most prominent examples of the unique characteristics of Tibetan Buddhism (Sakya Monastery of Tibetan Buddhism, n.d.). The Vajrayana direction of Buddhism concentrates on the teachings that can be found within the Mahayana philosophy, though variations in methods and practices can be noted. For instance, Mahayana aims to destroy fallacies such as cravings, ignorance, and aggression, and Vajrayana promotes the transmutations of these flaws into wisdom (Keown, 2020). The central theology of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition is founded on the belief that the samsara, or the mundane world, is inseparable from the goal of enlightenment.
Main Beliefs
Tibetan Buddhism upholds a myriad of beliefs, but five are central to the practice and following of the religion. First, Tibetan Buddhists believe in the four noble truths and the noble eightfold path. The noble truths include the comprehension of universal suffering, the root of suffering in craving, the cessation of suffering is possible, and the eightfold path is the way to end one’s suffering (Yakhers, 2022). The eightfold path instructs a follower of Buddhism on activities and perspectives that claim to limit their suffering. Second, karma and reincarnation are central to the beliefs of Buddhism. Third, they believe in the concept of the Bodhisattva, a Buddha in training that is compassionate and has yet to reach enlightenment (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021). Fourth, Tibetan Buddhism adopts Lamaism and follows the guidance of Lamas, who are teachers of the path of Dharma. Fifth, mantra, mediation, and mandalas are believed to be essential to many religious processes of Tibetan Buddhists.
Main Practices
There are four foundational concepts that inform Tibetan Buddhist practices. First, renunciation refers to the rejection of worldly pursuits and attachments. It also requires followers to focus on inner and spiritual achievements and fulfillments. Meditation and mantras affirm this concept and can allow a follower to attain true happiness that is not dependent on cravings and material objects (Bommarito, 2020). Second, the practice of the Bodhicitta can manifest as love and compassion drive spiritual pursuits (Barstow, 2019). It guides the perception of other living things, which informs followers that they are equals and must respect all the things around them. Third, Sunyata, or emptiness, informs followers that due to the fact that the world is constantly changing, all things lack eternal substance and identity (Komarovski, 2020). This concept guides mindfulness practices in which Tibetan Buddhists engage in order to understand the distinction between reality and perception. Fourth, Vajrayana, which is almost entirely unique to Tibetan Buddhism, instructs followers to envision their existence as enlightened beings through mantras and visualizations.
Contributions
Unlike many major religions, Tibetan Buddhism does not focus on the conversion of mass populations but on the provision of enlightenment for those that are willing to attempt Buddhist practices and beliefs. A more peaceful and less judgmental approach is highly beneficial for any religion as it provides non-followers with insight and the ability to learn with fewer unfavorable experiences. Similarly, Buddhist practices are practical and reflect benefits in the modern world, such as the ability to reject traditional but untrue attempts at reaching happiness through material gains.
1950 Invasion of Tibet
Tibet in the 1950s Background
Prior to the arrival of Chinese forces in the 1950s, Tibet was largely poor and isolated from its neighboring states and countries. Quality of life was incredibly low with a life expectancy not exceeding 36 years, literacy as low as 5 percent, and a majority of the population living in serfdom or as hereditary slaves (Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, n.d.). The social structure was also inadequate, with corruption and criminality being common. Noblemen and lamas would often make their wealth from peasants that did not see any of the profits. A sequence of changes in leadership and feuds had resulted in the regent of Reting coming into power. The Reting Conspiracy, a coup in 1947 was closely followed by the 1949 take-over of China by communist groups and individuals. It is important to consider the approach to which the new activists of Chinese communism had seen the feudal status of Tibet and its people which they believed to be in need of liberation.
Chinese Perspective
The role of Han Chinese individuals within the existence of Tibet is perceived as being agents of modernization in the modern Chinese perspective. Chinese historians cite many events that served to offer civilization to what was assumed to be an archaic region. There are even mentions of a Tang-dynasty princess that had introduced silk, agriculture, paper, industry, and modern medicine to Tibet. In fact, the securing of Tibet, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia within Chinese borders in the twentieth century is largely seen as a positive era during which invasions and degradation would cease. During the exile of the Dalai Lama, Chinese newsreels would depict farmers denouncing and revolting against former landlords and demolishing hereditary debt records. These events and the response of the Chinese both to historical and modern events that would follow indicate a decisive perspective of Tibet. It was seen as largely uncivilized and its people as needing freedom that could be provided by the newly formed the Communist Party of China.
The Advancement into Tibet
The movement of Chinese forces into Tibet had begun on the 7th of October, 1950. At least 40,000 P.LA. troops from China had met 4000 Tibetans after the crossing of the Yangtze River in eastern Tibet. The Tibetan forces were very poorly armed and were overrun in a rapid manner (The University of Central Arkansas, 2019). The advance was of little surprise as news had traveled regarding the rebellion of the poor people in China and their likelihood to come to Tibet. After a week of the first advance, the P.LA. had reached Chamdo, the capital of the Kham province, where the Tibetan Army’s Eastern Command was headquartered. It was known that Tibetan Buddhist monks had prayed for the failure of the invaders but Chamdo was easily overtaken and over half of Tibet’s 10,000-person army was captured. Similarly, the governor, Ngawang Jigme Ngab, was imprisoned. Following this, the Tibetan government had given the throne to a 15-year-old Dalai Lama. Meanwhile, appeals were made to the United Nations with no results and a stealth infiltration of Amdo was made by the Chinese forces. On the 9th of September 1951, 3000 Chinese liberation agents made a peaceful entry into Lhasa with portraits of Mao Zedong. China continues to claim that the liberation of Tibet was peaceful through the end of serfdom and the development of poor regions.
The Aftermath of the Invasion
Following the initial invasion, a number of events unfolded that would further define the occupation of Tibet by Chinese forces. This began with the 17-point Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet that held a forged signature of the Dalai Lama. The agreement promised to modify the social system of Tibet and provide a two-system structure like the one present in Hong Kong. This structure was said to provide self-governing and religious freedom but would still make room for the mechanisms that assured the terms of the document. Self-government would be allowed under the leadership of the Dalai Lama. However, the actual application of these factors was completely different from the promises of the agreement. The majority of political and structural control belonged to the Chinese Communist commission. Monastic powers were weakened and the Communist commission enforced major land reforms. At this point, Tibet was considered an autonomous region of China. In the years after 1951 much of the promises of the Chinese forces were reneged and the previous social order was disturbed through the cultivation of the Panchen Lama and the accumulation of Tibetan collaborators.
Events After the Occupation
The 1951 treaty and the resulting occupation resulted in a number of issues and lasting effects on Tibet. Famine became rampant as 222,000 PLA members had become stationed in Tibet by 1954 and the already delicate agricultural structure was at its threshold. Modern studies suggest that Mao and his political allies had expected and even been in favor of unrest and rebellion in Tibet as it would provide them with the opportunity to use military power to force their opposition into submission. As such, the promises of the Seventeen-Point Agreement have been largely untrue from its first implementation. The Preparatory Committee for the Autonomous Region of Tibet was made official in 1956 and existed primarily to validate the reforms made by the Chinese government (Zeitzen & Brox, 2021). During this period, rapid modernization was introduced to Tibet though much of common life in Tibet had remained unchanged. However, political opposition began to grow in the form of nonviolent resistance groups but were frequently arrested. The Chinese occupation was still abstaining from forceful oppression at this point in the occupation.
Protests and Atrocities
A severely violent revolt took place in February of 1956 which resulted in substantial casualties to the occupation of the PLA army in Tibet by guerilla forces from Kham and Amdo. Much of the Chinese forces were moved to the east in order to strengthen their forces and attempt to disarm the resistance. However, the revolt was highly violent and the Chinese army had taken drastic militant measures in retaliation. The People’s Liberation Army began to bomb and pillage Eastern Tibetan monasteries as well as arrest numerous senior monks, guerrilla leaders, and nobles. Arrests were often followed by public torture and execution, largely to discourage further resistance. Between 1957 and 1963, the displacement in many areas of Tibet were massive with the Qinghai province’s population dropping by nearly 20%. Minor Tibetan forces, such as villages or smaller communities, were often killed, injured, and captured as they were making an escape from Chinese forces. It is this movement of people, especially out of the Khmap and Amdo regions into Lhasa that triggered the 1959 revolt. Though modernization did occur at some levels with the occupation by Chinese forces, it left Tibet largely scarred and under Chinese rule.
References
Barstow, G. (2019). On the moral standing of animals in Tibetan Buddhism. Animals in the religion and culture of the Tibetan Plateau, 50(1). Web.
Bommarito, N. (2020). Seeing clearly: A Buddhist guide to life. Oxford University Press.
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs. (n.d.). When the Chinese came to Tibet. Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs. Web.
Keown, D. (2020). Buddhist ethics: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Komarovski, Y. (2020). Radiant emptiness. Oxford University Press.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. (n.d.). Bodhisattvas of Wisdom, Compassion, and Power. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web.
Sakya Monastery of Tibetan Buddhism. (n.d.). Intro to Tibetan Buddhism. Sakya. Web.
The University of Central Arkansas. (2019). China/Tibet (1950-present). The University of Central Arkansas. Web.
Yakherds, T. (2022). Knowing illusion: Bringing a Tibetan debate into contemporary discourse. Oxford University Press.
Zeitzen, M. K., & Brox, T. (2021). Measuring the Tibetan nation: Anthropometry in 1950s Kalimpong. Cambridge University Press.