Introduction
Environmental issues have become much more prominent over the past decades, which led to the emergence of conservation as a popular subject of scientific inquiry. Focusing on preserving and improving natural landscapes could help to remedy the damage done to the environment by human activity at least partly, thus helping humanity to achieve greater sustainability in the long term. As part of scholarly research on the topics of sustainability, biodiversity, and landscape management, traditional practices related to land management and use gained particular attention.
Research showed the presence of a relationship between cultural, linguistic, and biological diversity, leading to the development of thought in biocultural diversity. In this context, studies on the role of traditional culture and knowledge in landscape preservation have become particularly relevant due to the link between this topic and biocultural diversity. The present paper will seek to explore current research on the influences of traditional culture and knowledge on landscapes by identifying its background, prominent findings, and relevant case studies.
Background
History of the Topic
The growing interest in the ways that traditional culture and knowledge impact landscapes stemmed from decades of research in biology, biodiversity, anthropology, historical linguistics, and conservation. According to Maffi and Woodley (2010), the idea of the connection between humans, their culture, and nature is found in many indigenous and traditional societies. The concept of biocultural diversity, which links together biological, linguistic, and cultural diversity, was only coined in the late 20th century (Maffi & Woodley, 2010). Still, connectedness between these diversities was evident to researchers before that.
For instance, Maffi (2005) explains that Charles Darwin and August Schleicher both commented on the parallel between evolutionary biology and historical linguistics. Studies that laid the foundation for the concept of biocultural diversity often focused on indigenous communities and on Native Americans in particular. Maffii (2005) states that these societies were the focus of studies of the relationship between language and the environment, as well as between culture and the environment. Hence, the line of academic thought affirming the connectedness between traditional culture and knowledge and landscapes began in the 19th century, following developments in the study of biology, linguistics, and indigenous communities.
Later developments on the topic focused on exploring the link between linguistic, cultural, and biological diversity and the ways in which this link could be applied in conservation. Based on the study of indigenous peoples and their use of land, researchers were able to identify patterns related to biological conservation. As Maffi (2005) states, “a focus on the relationships between linguistic, cultural, and biological diversity, their global overlapping distributions, and the common threats they are facing emerged in the mid-1990s in the wake of an alarming and thought-provoking observation: that the ongoing worldwide loss of biodiversity is paralleled by and seems interrelated to the ‘extinction crisis’ affecting linguistic and cultural diversity” (p. 601).
Consequently, scholars sought to develop a deeper understanding of the ways in which cultural and linguistic diversity affect and are affected by biodiversity. It was suggested that indigenous peoples and their patterns of land use could be studied and applied to preserve and enhance biodiversity (Agnoletti & Rotherham, 2015; Cocks, 2006; Gavin et al., 2015). The study of indigenous land management patterns followed, which offered more insight into the effects of traditional culture and knowledge on natural landscapes.
Current Approaches
The context of current research in traditional cultures and their impact on landscapes is comprised of two main trends. On the one hand, industrialization and other aspects of human activity have led to the deterioration of biodiversity and natural landscapes through climate change and over-exploitation of natural resources (Maffi & Woodley, 2010). On the other hand, indigenous cultures and languages are also under threat due to widespread urbanization and social changes (Maffi, 2014).
Current scholars and activists are faced with the challenge of addressing biocultural diversity as a whole, thus ensuring that both the landscapes and the indigenous communities are preserved (Maffi, 2014). As a result, collaborative approaches to conservation were developed that involved multiple stakeholders in ecosystem management (Maffi & Woodley, 2010; Szaro, Sexton, & Malone, 1998). This approach is promising in terms of biocultural conservation as it preserves local cultures and traditional knowledge while also targeting the biodiversity of landscapes.
The primary benefit of collaborative approaches to biocultural conservation lies in the combination of knowledge from various sources. As explained by Szaro et al. (1998), collaborative ecosystem management “attempts to involve all stakeholders in defining sustainable alternatives for the interactions of people and the environments in which they live” (p. 2).
Consequently, scientific knowledge based on empirical research can be combined with centuries of traditional knowledge to define and implement conservation objectives, land use policies, and helpful tools to preserve and restore landscapes. Maffi and Woodley (2010) also state that collaborative biocultural conservation projects also assist in conserving cultural and linguistic heritage because they encourage the transmission of traditional knowledge from one generation to another. Therefore, modern approaches to landscape conservation acknowledge the importance of traditional culture and knowledge and their interrelatedness with land and ecosystem preservation and apply these concepts to benefit the environment and local communities.
Effects of Traditional Culture and Knowledge on Landscapes
There are many ways in which traditional culture and knowledge can help in protecting and restoring natural landscapes. First of all, traditional cultures and their customs of land use usually prevent over-use of natural resources. As stated by Mistry and Berardi (2016), indigenous land use practices are pivotal to preventing deforestation due to their sustainability. This is partly because indigenous communities depend on their land for food and resources, and they use the land to sustain their needs rather than to make profits. Research using satellite imaging revealed that indigenous lands “contribute substantially to maintaining carbon stocks and enhancing biodiversity relative to adjoining territory” (Mistry & Berardi, 2016, p. 1274).
In addition, many traditional communities also have practices and customs in place to promote responsible land use and prevent over-exploitation of resources. For example, in Africa, Tchabè communities have strict rules regarding fishing, which may help in preservation efforts (Ceperley, Montagnini, & Natta, 2010). By banning overfishing, these communities contribute to marine ecosystem conservation. This means that the lands occupied by indigenous communities have more biodiversity and higher volumes of flora than those occupied or used by non-indigenous peoples.
Besides land use patterns, traditional culture also supports natural landscapes through land use knowledge passed from one generation to the other. According to Mistry and Berardi (2016), local ecological knowledge plays a significant part in sustainable land use. By using the land continuously, indigenous communities learn patterns and actions that help to preserve natural landscapes and ecosystems while benefitting from them.
For example, research has shown how indigenous peoples of the southern Baffin Island use past experiences, reflection, sense-making practices, and variations in knowledge to learn more about the Greenland shark population and its role in sustaining the marine environment (Mistry & Berardi, 2016). Consequently, traditional culture supports the application of the knowledge developed by ancestors, encouraging future generations to sustain their land use patterns. The sheer volume of traditional knowledge accumulated over centuries is not always available to ecologists and other scholars, making the input of traditional communities into landscape conservation highly valuable.
Another way in which traditional culture and knowledge have a positive effect on landscapes is by limiting pollution. Because the patterns of land use exhibited by traditional communities are highly sustainable, they do not rely on chemicals in their use of the land. This assists communities in preventing soil, air, and water pollution. For instance, in China, 47% of area-sourced pollutants come from agriculture (Tiejun et al., 2012).
These pollutants often include chemicals aimed at improving the yield of crops and other resources from the land. Hence, a significant share of pollution that damages natural landscapes stems from agricultural modernization, which is characterized by the use of technology and chemical compounds in producing larger volumes of resources (Tiejun et al., 2012). Traditional communities, in contrast, usually focus on organic growth, using knowledge accumulated over centuries to use their lands more efficiently. In China, traditional agriculture is multifunctional and maintained by small households, which limits the need to use harsh chemicals to produce crops (Tiejun et al., 2012).
By applying traditional knowledge, local communities, including indigenous societies, can help to obtain necessary resources from natural landscapes while preserving them. Bridging traditional and scientific knowledge could thus result in more sustainable yet efficient land use practices.
Thirdly, traditional cultures and their connectedness to nature can also assist in preservation efforts by protecting specific sites and species. Maffi and Woodley (2010 show that traditional cultures are often associated with the presence of sacred sites, plants, or animals.
Consequently, people from traditional communities protect these from various types of harm. Dudley et al. (2012) argue that sacred natural sites in Asia and Africa are often better protected than many officially protected reserves, and thus play a significant role in the conservation of biodiversity. Traditional communities regulate the use of sacred sites strictly because their religious or spiritual beliefs are often connected to them in one way or the other. Hence, people who visit such sites are often banned from hunting, cutting trees, or using the land for agriculture (Ceperley et al., 2010; Dudley et al., 2012).
Because these rules have been upheld for centuries, sacred sites often present a significantly higher level of biodiversity than the adjacent territories. For instance, Dudley et al. (2012) report that in China and Hong Kong, sacred forests preserve old forest structure and fauna, with many species that are not found elsewhere. Similarly, in India, sacred sites feature the only remaining tropical dry evergreen forests, and in Japan, ancient lowland forests are only left near the grounds of Shinto temples (Dudley et al., 2012). This means that, in many traditional communities, conservation efforts have been initiated much earlier than scholars began researching biodiversity and species preservation. As a result, traditional knowledge and culture played a crucial role in maintaining the natural landscapes untouched.
Examples of Biocultural Landscapes
There are many examples of biocultural landscapes in research, which detail the ways in which local traditional communities serve to preserve biodiversity through sustainable land use practices. In most cases discovered as part of the research, traditional communities maintained a symbiotic relationship with natural landscapes. In Byans Valley, India, seven migratory villages were studied by Negi et al. (2017). The researchers comment that “these communities are believed to have a wealth of ethnobotanical knowledge and have established a symbiotic relationship between biodiversity and their cultural identity” (Negi et al., 2017).
The people from migratory villages use agriculture for resources and rely on traditional remedies heavily to maintain health. At the same time, they preserve a number of sacred sites used for pastures and engaged in conservation and sustainable land use. For instance, lopping and felling of trees are strictly prohibited, and villagers were only allowed to collect some resources, such as dead and fallen fuelwood and leaf-litter, during specific seasons (Negi et al., 2017). The villages also have institutions that seek to protect the land by developing and enforcing land use regulations, including forest council and the village council (Negi et al., 2017). Therefore, in this case, traditional culture and knowledge are used for the benefit of the natural landscape, resulting in improved biodiversity and conservation.
In Southeast Asia, traditional communities are also involved in pest control, which helped them to preserve the land’s resources. Marten (1986) states that local communities historically used mechanical, chemical, and biological control methods to reduce pest populations and use land more effectively. For instance, in the Philippines, the application of ash, sand, soap, sand, and plants is used in the fields to control the spread of various pests (Marten, 1986).
In Indonesia, farmers manually remove infested plants and insects or killed rats to preserve their fields (Marten, 1986). They also use salt and ash to prevent populations of aphids, white grub, and ants from overgrowth (Marten, 1986). These examples show how natural landscapes can be protected from uncontrolled pest growth through the application of traditional knowledge.
Patterns of land use in Southeast Asia also contributed to biodiversity and landscape conservation. For example, in Indonesia, home gardens, mixed gardens, and tree plantations featured a high diversity of plant and animal species, which enabled farmers to fulfill various needs of their families while using land efficiently (Marten, 1986). Traditional land use practices, such as planting and plant care, prevented land over-use and helped to maintain vegetation (Marten, 1986). In a similar way, the Bontok people in the Philippines have developed specific land use patterns based on traditional ecological knowledge accumulated over centuries.
This society has a distinct land classification, wherein every type of land is used for a specific purpose (Marten, 1986). This practice assists in preventing over-exploitation of land due to a high degree of compartmentalization. The most valuable land is used for growing rice, and it is strictly regulated in terms of ownership and utilization. Marten (1986) explains that rice fields are carefully monitored and cared for to control the population of pests and prevent structural changes to the terrain. These practices were developed from traditional knowledge, and they assist the local communities in preserving the landscape while also using it for food and other resources.
Historical examples were also evident in research studies on conservation and landscape management. Franco (2015) focuses on the use of calendars in ecosystem management by Maya an Aztecs. The researcher notes that the Maya calendar contains information about “weather, animal behaviour, agriculture, and forestry using a combination of geometry, astronomy, mathematical calculations, and construction skills” (Franco, 2015, p. 356).
Hence, the calendar influenced people’s activities related to landscape use by synching their behavior with natural patterns. For example, the calendar stipulated the number of days that have to pass between location choice for the milpa until forest burning and from planting to harvest. While some researchers argue that Maya’s land use patterns led to deforestation, others point out that they contributed to biodiversity and enhanced the landscape (Franco, 2015).
Aztecs, in turn, managed their Chinampa gardens based on divinatory and solar calendars, which stipulated agricultural stages and seasons (Franco, 2015). Farmers’ agricultural operations were adjusted in accordance with natural patterns, which ensured high crop yield and prevented over-exploitation of soil. Consequently, both cultures used knowledge gained from observations and experiments to preserve and improve natural landscapes.
Conclusions
Overall, there are several conclusions that can be drawn from secondary research on the topic of biocultural landscapes. First of all, the research points to the interconnectedness of cultures, languages, and landscapes. In the context of environmental deterioration and the loss of indigenous populations, conservation efforts should focus on bridging cultural and biological diversities to create sustainable solutions. This would help to preserve traditional cultures, languages, and knowledge while also promoting biodiversity and landscape conservation. Although there are various scholarly resources indicating the need for collaborative conservation projects, additional research into the effect of such projects on cultural and biological diversity is still required.
Secondly, evidence points to the positive influence of traditional communities and their knowledge of landscape preservation and improvement. The case studies presented in the paper show how people from various traditional societies have managed to establish a symbiotic relationship with their landscapes and prevent their destruction from human activity. Moreover, research also showed the ways in which traditional societies benefitted natural landscapes.
Based on scholarly evidence, it appears that the accumulation of traditional knowledge over multiple generations plays a crucial part in landscape preservation. Traditional societies usually have centuries’ worth of experience of living in a particular area, and this experience enabled them to identify patterns related to species, weather, and terrain that are not always apparent to researchers. Applying this knowledge in agriculture enables traditional societies to benefit from the land while using it to fulfill their needs.
In addition, it appears that cultural customs and beliefs play an important role in conservation. Sacred sites that have been protected by local communities for centuries tend to have higher levels of biodiversity and often preserve the original landscape. This trend supports the relationship between traditional cultures and landscapes.
Finally, research also showed the effectiveness of traditional landscape managing practices not only in maintaining natural ecosystems but also in using their resources efficiently. The ways in which traditional communities apply natural remedies to control pests, prevent overgrowth, and ensure high crop yield can assist in improving modern agriculture and making it more sustainable. For instance, applying traditional knowledge could assist in reducing pollution and other sources of environmental damage. These improvements could help to achieve greater sustainability on a global level, thus addressing current issues in ecology.