Introduction
One of the defining aspects of the 19th century was Western imperialism, which saw European states aggressively extend their influence over most parts of the world. This imperialism was fueled by intensified economic activity, which led to stiff competition for raw materials and markets by the Western world, which was experiencing the Second Industrial Revolution. Imperialism was also encouraged by the concept that as Social Darwinism advanced that it was natural for the stronger nations to have dominion over the weaker nations.
As a result of the superior technology possessed by the West, they set out to established political control over much of the globe. The Asian continent was one of the regions where Western control was imposed. While Imperialism in Asia was pursued tenaciously by Western powers, the three Asian countries; Japan, China, and India, reacted differently to these intrusions, with India succumbing while Japan and China managed to maintain their sovereignty with far-reaching implications on the future economies, political makeup, religious ideologies, and national identities of the respective countries.
Japan
While Japan had previously adopted a policy of isolation, she was forced to open up her ports for trade with Western nations, and from there henceforth, she set out to modernize herself so as to protect herself from the Western powers who were at the time more developed. From the early 1600s, Japan adopted a policy of isolation, and she steadfastly resisted any attempts by the Western powers to adopt diplomatic relations or trade with the country (Arisaka, 1997).
Until the mid-1800s, Japan primarily traded with China and the Dutch and continued to resist any attempts by Western powers to open the country up. Arisaka (1997) documents that this policy of isolation was abandoned in 1853 when Commodore Perry led a fleet of American steamships armed with cannons into the shores of Yokohoma and demanded that Japan open herself up to Western powers. Japan was therefore forced to sign trade treaties with the US, and in a few years, similar treaties had been signed with other European nations.
In the years of the signing of these treaties, Japan was ruled by the shogun, who was a military dictatorship. The Japanese people resented the rulers for agreeing to sign the treaties. This public opinion resulted in the overthrow of the shogun by Emperor Mutsuhito, who began the Meiji restoration, which marked the shift from feudalism to modernization for Japan (Wilson, 2005). The rule by Emperor Mutsuhito was characterized by a deep desire to embark on the course for modernization in all aspects of life for Japan.
This was seen as the only way through which Japan could protect itself from Western expansionism. The previous aversion to Western influence was based on the view of foreigners as “barbaric.” However, the political leaders actively promoted modernization in favor of the old feudal ways and demonstrated to the public the benefits that were to be reaped from such efforts (Wilson, 2005). Soon, people in the cosmopolitan centers embraced the new ways of life that the Westerners had brought. The Japanese government sent representatives to the Western world so that they could study Western ways and bring back knowledge to Japan.
While Japan was never colonized by the West, Western influence had as deep an impact as it did on colonized countries. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 was modeled after western ideas of the strong central government, and a significant shift in the role and power of the Emperor was witnessed as Japan set out to create a strong and unified country. Japan adopted the universal public education that was practiced in America, and as a result, all Japanese school-aged children were required to attend school. Expatriates often made up the teaching staff in some schools, and students were also allowed to go and study abroad.
Japan set out to build an expansive railway line to connect the nation’s capital Tokyo with the port of Yokohama. This helped to connect cities with ports, and the coal industry of the country grew tremendously. The government also supported the building of many modern factories, and the traditional Japanese industries were modernized and expanded to increase their capacity. By the early 20th century, Japan had established herself as an economic power able to compete with the West.
Japan also established a strong military force to protect itself from the Western Imperialists. Japan built a modern military that was organized in a manner similar to the Western powers France and Germany. Japan’s modernization efforts paid off, and by 1890, the country boasted of a strong well trained, and equipped army and a number of warships. Japan was keen to showcase its power to the world, and this was done by the country adopting imperialistic policies.
In 1986, Japan had forced Korea to open up a number of her ports to Japanese trade, a move that was disapproved by China, which considered Korea to be a strategic trading partner as well as a military station (Wilson, 2005). The defeat of China led to the acquisition of Taiwan as the first Japanese colony. In 1904, Japan went to war with Russia over Manchuria, and the war ended with the defeat of Russia by Japanese forces. This defeat elevated the status of Japan as a military power, and it also led to the annexation of Korea by Japan. Until the end of the Second World War, Japan was in full control over Asia as far as the eastern confines of India (Chalmers, 1972).
China
China, which had also adopted a policy of isolation, was forced to open up her ports to Western forces, but she did not modernize herself fast enough, which led to Western imperialist pressure being exerted on the country until after the Second World War. Until the 18th century, China was the leading civilization in the world, with many technological advancements having been made in the country (Bickers, 2011).
China regarded foreigners are barbarians, and it did not want anything to do with them. Even so, China traded sparsely with Europeans who were eager to get goods from China. The main product that the West had to offer China was opium, which was obtained from India. This product was used to obtain silk, tea, porcelain, and other valuable products from China. Opium resulted in addiction, which made China ban the sale of opium. The West did not appreciate this ban, which led to the First Opium War of 1839.
In the Opium Wars, China was thoroughly defeated by Britain, which had superior weapons and a modern navy. After this defeat, China was forced to enter into many treaties, which led to the opening up of other ports for trade with Europeans (Bickers, 2011). Foreign legal jurisdictions were established, and Western powers took over control of tariffs. In addition to this, Christian missionaries began to flow into China.
A further influence on China was exerted following the Second Opium War of 1856. In this war, the British sought the support of the French in a joint expedition against China. The war ended with the establishment of the Treaty of Tientsin, which opened even more Chinese ports to Western powers and forced china to pay indemnity to British and France. Foreigners were also allowed to travel freely throughout China.
In 1859, Western powers demanded that they be allowed to establish embassies in the Chinese capital of Peking. Bickers (2011) documents that China refused this demand, which led to an attack on Taku Forts by Western naval forces. These attacks ended with the capture of Peking by British and French troops who looted and set the Emperor’s summer palace on fire. This defeat effectively ended the Second Opium War and led to the convention of Peking, which established even more damaging conditions for China (Bickers, 2011).
China was forced to recognize the validity of the Treaty of Tientsin and open up the Tientsin trade port. Opium Trade was legalized and Western merchants compensated for the destruction of their property. China was also forced to give religious freedom to its entire population and protect Christian Missionaries in its territory.
China’s weakness in the region was demonstrated by its defeat by Japan in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894. When China and Japan clashed over control of Korea, Japan was so much further advanced in reforms and modernization that it quickly broke the Chinese resistance, and China was utterly defeated Chalmers (, 1972). This war led to Japan taking control of Korea and establishing control over Manchuria. The last attempt by China to resist Western influence was in the form of the Boxer Rebellion of 1898-1900.
This rebellion involved a clandestine martial arts society launching attacks against foreigners and government officials who were working in collaboration with the Westerners. The rebellion resulted in the foreign powers mounting joint operations to suppress the rebellion and an establishment of foreign bases on Chinese soil.
Following the defeat of Russia by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904, China realized that she would have to make reforms along with Western standards so as to become a power. Rebellions and revolts against the Qing imperial authority followed in the early 1900s, and this culminated in a successful Republican Revolution. Modern China was formed in 1911 following the Manchu Revolution, which led to the fall of the Manchu dynasty and the birth of the Republic of China.
However, China did not form a unified government, and warlords continued to wage war as they sought dominion over different parts of the country. By the end of the First World War, Japan was given control of the Shandong peninsula of China, which evoked nationalistic sentiments among the Chinese. China, therefore, set out to adopt Western values and science so as to enable it to compete favorably with the West. However, China was still not able to unify itself, and as a result of its fragmented state, the country continued to be under imperialistic forces until the end of the Second World War.
India
India’s relationship with the West began by trade through the British East India Company, and over the decades, the strength and power of the company grew, and eventually, the British Crown ended up colonizing India until 1947 when India obtained her independence. Britain’s conquest of India was the product of the expansionist activities of the East India Company (EIC). The EIC was not purely a mercantile body since it had the backing of the British government and had the protection of the Royal Navy and units of the royal army.
Washbrook (1997) records that British Imperialism in India begun through the East India Company, which engaged in trading activities in the subcontinent from the 17th century. By the use of this company, Britain was able to achieve a monopolistic trading position in India, and other European powers did not engage in trading with India.
The EIC strengthened its position by making alliances with warring princes, and with time, it shifted into a territorial empire. Washbrook (1997) notes that by 1857, the EIC had been successful in replacing the inefficient warlord aristocracy that had ruled India with an effective bureaucracy. The company appointed educated bureaucrats to replace local chiefs, and a standing army was created to ensure the stability of Company rule. The EIC recruited local soldiers (sepoys) who served in its army. The sepoy army built by the EIC was of considerable size, and it had been successful in intervening in Indian internal policies.
1857 was a significant year in British imperialism in India since it was the year when the Indian Mutiny and rebellion was instigated (Washbrook, 1997). This rebellion demonstrated the widespread antagonism of British involvement in India by the local population. The rebellion was countered by Britain’s military expeditions in India, with more than 35000 British troops being sent to suppress the rebellion. After the rebellion had been successfully quelled, Britain’s hold on India increased significantly. The British East India Company was abolished, and the British Crown took direct control of India.
Her Majesty Queens Victoria was declared Empress of India, and the affairs of India were directly dictated by the British parliament. Following the colonization of India, there was an influx of British nationals. These Britons took over administrative functions and were responsible for running the British raj, which had been established after 1957. By 1900, the British colonial powers had built up a civil service consisting of around 500 thousand English educated Indians and 4000 Europeans. This workforce assisted in the rule over the 300million Indians who resided in the subcontinent. Today India has a constitutional government that is structured after that of Great Britain.
There were some benefits that came about from British rule in India. To begin with, the internal war that had raged on as different princes and warlords sort dominion was completely extinguished. The British also enhanced the economic capacity of India by building infrastructure and developing agriculture and industry so as to make India competitive in the world market.
India also faced significant demerits as a result of colonization by Britain. To begin with, India lost its autonomy and was subjected to foreign rule. The British used India as a market for her surplus products and took natural resources from India. Washbrook (1997) also states that Britain’s rule was characterized by racial discrimination as the British foreigners took the role of the ruling class.
Conclusion
While the three Asian Countries, China, India, and Japan, all encountered Western Imperialist forces, the outcomes differed significantly. Since Japan feared that she was under the constant threat of Western encroachment, the Emperor sought to modernize Japan’s economy to make it compete with Western nations. The Chinese continued struggling to free their nation from foreign control, but these struggles were thwarted by the united front that the Western powers presented. India, on the other hand, became a colony of Britain and only gained her independence in 1947. All three countries ended up adopting Western values and integrating them into their culture. Christianity was also introduced to the nations and continues to be one of the religions practiced in the countries today.
References
Arisaka, Y. (1997). Beyond East and West’: Nishida’s universalism and postcolonial critique. Review of Politics, 59 (3): 541-561.
Bickers, R. (2011). China’s Age of Fragility. History Today, 61 (3):29-36.
Chalmers, J. (1972). How China and Japan see each other. Foreign Affairs, 50 (4): 711-721.
Washbrook, D. (1997). After the mutiny: From queen to queen-empress. History Today 47 (9): 10-15.
Wilson, S. (2005). The discourse of National greatness in Japan, 1890–1919. Japanese Studies, 25 (1): 35-51.