The history of civilizations is interlaced with the use of intoxicating substances. Alcoholic beverages and drugs were largely utilized within ancient cultures for recreational, cultural, or religious purposes (Nathan et al. 3). While the cultural environment might make a substance socially acceptable, its abuse is considered an addiction. Modern societies have witnessed an increased number of unhealthy habits, including behavioral dependencies (Robbins and Clark 1). This paper analyzes how the idea of addiction has changed in our recent past by utilizing two events in 1920 and 1967. The text dwells on some of the current trends in addictions, focusing on the emerging Internet Gaming Disorder and the rise of synthetic drugs.
When the colonization of the Americas started, the consumption of alcohol was common practice in Europe, and it spread across the New World following the development of American society. Its abuse became such a social plague that, in the late eighteenth century, it gave rise to a movement aimed at prohibiting or abolishing alcohol. The primary goal of the Temperance Movement was to direct the nation’s attention to the harmful consequences of alcohol consumption (Nathan et al. 5).
The Movement gained momentum along the whole nineteenth century and influenced the government to pass the 1920 Eighteenth Amendment (Nathan et al. 5) which made intoxicating liquors illegal in the U.S. The Eighteenth Amendment is important from a socio-cultural perspective as it ratified the stigmatization of the abuse of alcohol within the society.
In 1967, the police broke into the country house of Keith Richards in Redlands, Sussex, finding cannabis, amphetamines, and other illegal substances (Collins 1). Richards and his bandmate Mick Jagger were charged with drug offenses and sentenced to imprisonment. One month after the sentence, however, the court canceled the conviction for Richards and suspended the condemnation for Jagger. The Redlands Affair raised a lively debate on permissiveness, individual behavior, and social responsibility (Collins 2). The episode reveals a new attitude towards addictions within society, where the use of potentially harmful substances was a matter of individual freedom.
The turn of the millennium has witnessed the proliferating of new trends within addictions, including Internet-related behavioral disorders and significant use of synthetic drugs. Many websites investigate new dependencies from different perspectives. Psychology Today deepens the diffusion of addictive behaviors (Sarkis). Between 2000 and 2016 the number of Internet users has increased by 1000%, and Internet Gaming Disorder is considered an addictive mental disorder (Kuss and Lopez-Fernandez 143).
While the scope of addictive Internet use is far from being fully understood, the abuse of online gaming can result in significant impairments, including social anxiety, depression, and suicidal tendencies (Tian et al. 7). The increasing number of Internet addiction prevention counseling centers worldwide suggests that the phenomenon is on the rise.
The harmfulness of synthetic drugs is highlighted on many websites worldwide. Better Health offers a solid overview of synthetic drugs, underlining how they can damage the organism irreversibly (“Synthetic Drugs”). The abuse of synthetic opioids, synthetic marijuana, and methamphetamines is increasing, due to their large availability (Creagh et al. 1). Synthetic drugs are substances similar to their natural counterparts, generating the same psychological responses and leading to addiction. These drugs harm the central nervous system by boosting the activity of some neurotransmitters and causing the consistent diminution of the neural connectivity. It is impossible to know what substances are included in the compounds.
The promulgation of the Eighteenth Amendment aimed at stigmatizing alcohol addiction and promoting moral values within American society. Just a few decades later, some groups advocated for the right to decide whether to use or not illicit substances as part of inalienable individual liberty. More recently, the spread of the Internet has marked the emergence of new behavioral addictions, while the diffusion of synthetic drugs raises concerns among scientists. These events and trends represent different sides of modern society, showing how addictions follow the coeval social, cultural, and scientific mainstream.
Theories into Practice
According to Di Clemente (3) the term addiction is related to the compulsive consumption of harmful substances and entails a tendency to self-destructive behaviors. However, within the last decades, the term has widened its scope to include various addictive behaviors, including Internet-related addictions, reiteration of noxious situations such as troubled relationships, and even positive addictions (Di Clemente 4). Similarities among addictive behaviors have allowed researchers to develop the criteria to define and diagnose addictions. Behavioral approaches have proven especially effective (“Behavioral Therapies”).
These methodologies aim at fostering active responses among individuals under treatment by encouraging them to stay abstinent through incentives as well as by providing adequate tools to cope with the most uncomfortable areas. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, Contingency Management Interventions/Motivational Incentives Below, 12-Step Facilitation Therapy, and Motivational Enhancement Therapy are some behavioral approaches.
Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) is a structured version of Motivational Interviewing, an evidence-based approach that boosts motivation for change. MET is particularly effective for alcohol, marijuana, and nicotine treatment, while the outcomes for opioids are mixed (“Behavioral Therapies”). The therapy consists of a first assessment session to frame the case, favor discussion on the use of harmful substances, and evoke self-motivational wish for change. This initial session is paramount to build a plan for change. Below, some questions are suggested to assess background and factors that might have contributed to favor the addiction.
The first question should explore the family background of the individual to understand if parents or other members of the family had addictions. Such a case might have increased the risk for the individual to develop drug or alcohol dependency. The second question could aim at understanding if the individual has undergone some abuse during childhood which might have resulted in searching oblivion and escape in drugs.
The third question should investigate the school background to assess if the availability of drugs and mimicked behaviors might have triggered the addiction. The fourth question should explore the neighborhood and community where the individual lives or used to live when he/she started abusing harmful substances; people living in poor and degraded areas are more likely to develop addictions (Volkow 13). This first block of questions provides a historical background of the individual, and it is essential to assess the level of vulnerability of the subject and to develop a coherent strategy for change.
Further questions should be proactive and oriented to develop a positive feeling towards a possible change for the better. From this perspective, the fifth question could engage the subject in a discussion on the personal use of harmful substances related to individual liberty and social responsibility. The sixth question should assess the awareness of the individual about the physical and psychological damages connected with drug or alcohol abuse. The seventh question, should explore the desires and the expectations for the future, when the subject will be free from dependencies.
In Motivational Enhancement Therapy, the initial assessment is essential to stimulate the individuals undergoing the treatment and to develop a coherent strategy. Both incentives and tools for high-risk situations should be included, tailored on the historical background and the expectations of the subjects. The planning should be kept flexible and conformed to the progress of the patient, continually stimulated to be an active part in the decision making. As other behavioral approaches, Motivational Enhancement Therapy modifies the attitude of the patients towards addictions, improving their skill to face hardship and stress.
Works Cited
“Behavioral Therapies.” National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2018. Web.
Collins, Marcus. “Permissiveness on Trial: Sex, Drugs, Rock, the Rolling Stones, and the Sixties Counterculture.” Popular Music and Society. 2019. Web.
Creagh, Sinead, et.al. “The New Classes of Synthetic Illicit Drugs Can Significantly Harm the Brain: A Neuro Imaging Perspective with Full Review of MRI Findings.” Clinical Radiological Imaging Journal, 2018, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-20.
DiClemente, Carlo C. Addiction and Change: How Addictions Develop and Addicted People Recover. 2nd. The Guildford Press, 2018.
Volkow, Nora D.. “Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction.” National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2018. Web.
Sarkis, Stephanie A. “Internet Gaming Disorder in DSM-5.” Psychology Today, 2019. Web.
Kuss, Daria J., and Olatz Lopez-Fernandez. “Internet Addiction and Problematic Internet Use: A Systematic Review of Clinical Research.” World Journal of Psychiatry, 2016, vol. 6, no.1, pp. 143-176.
Nathan, Peter E., et al. “History of the Concept of Addiction.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2016, vol. 12, pp. 3-23.
“Synthetic Drugs.” Better Health, 2018. Web.
Tian, Moquian, et al. “Internet Gaming Disorder in Adolescents is Linked to Delay Discounting but Not Probability Discounting.” Computers in Human Behavior, 2018, vol. 80, pp. 59-66.
Robbins, Trevor W., and Luke Clark. “Behavioral Addictions.” Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 2015, vol. 30, pp. 66-72.