Abstract
Ensuring the population’s safety during natural disasters is an important aspect of the targeted work of authorities and boards responsible for resource allocation and the adoption of emergency measures. As an object of research, flash flooding in Birmingham, Alabama, is seen as a frequent occurrence in the city. The purpose of the work is to identify the key stages of threat addressing, including mitigation steps, preparedness and communication mechanisms, and response and recovery measures to address the outcomes of such disasters. Numerous watersheds near Birmingham and frequent precipitation in spring and summer are the factors that increase the risk of flash floods, and statistics over the past few decades confirm this. Various factors need to be taken into account, including economic and social aspects since, due to different perceptions of threat and distinctive incomes, individual families may find it difficult to obtain appropriate assistance. Effective communication based on the involvement of responsible parties is one of the main criteria for addressing floods in Birmingham successfully.
History of Hazard
Flash flooding is a natural threat that is common in Birmingham, Alabama, for several reasons. According to Hossain and Meng (2020), the city is located in a climatic zone that is characterized by extreme rainfall in the spring and summer. In addition, the authors note that Birmingham is a city with a highly developed infrastructure and a high population density, which, in turn, “contributes to flooding by reducing the water infiltration rate and removing vegetation that increases surface runoff from rainfall” (Hossain & Meng, 2020, p. 9139). Numerous watersheds located close to the city have caused flooding many times. Hossain and Meng (2020) argue that, since 1977, flash floods have occurred in Birmingham over thirty times. The last time it happened was in early May 2021. According to the National Weather Service, in the Birmingham area, due to heavy rainfall and flooding of drainage zones, the total rainfall exceeded seven inches, and some residents had to be evacuated (“Severe storms,” 2021). Thus, the hazard has not only a natural explanation but also an interpretation based on increased urbanization as a risk factor of frequent flash floods in the considered area.
The Village Creek territory should be viewed as a particular threat by the city’s officials and emergency services. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency presenting “100-year floodplain data,” more than half of the floods, about 53%, occur in the area of the creek (Hossain & Meng, 2020, p. 9139). In addition, the high density of watersheds on the territory exacerbates the situation and increases the risks since, in case of prolonged precipitation, flood threats are critical. Moreover, high human-made activities in such a large city as Birmingham lead to the clogging of drainage systems and channels. As a result, these two factors explain a tense situation in this territory and particular attention to the problem.
With regard to future risks, the people of Birmingham need to take into account the existing natural environment. The officials, in turn, are to take measures to protect citizens. As Hossain and Meng (2020) remark, more than half of the city’s residents are racial minorities, in particular, African Americans, but the tendency to move from dangerous areas is observed among the non-minority white population. Failure to take action to protect citizens and eliminate the threat of flooding makes life in Birmingham unsafe and endangers not only infrastructure but also people. Therefore, the participation of responsible authorities and the creation of the necessary resource base to eliminate risks for all citizens without exception is a prerequisite for addressing the problem of flash floods in the city.
Principles of Mitigation
Providing the necessary mitigation and planning measures is a prerequisite for targeted work to protect the city from flash floods. Moreover, in addition to creating a security program for citizens, special solutions need to be worked out to prevent financial losses. According to Abdrabo et al. (2020), over the past more than half a century, the total number of human casualties from floods has decreased significantly, while economic losses, conversely, have increased alarmingly, which may be explained by the aforementioned urbanization as an inevitable social process (see Figure 1 in Appendix). These statistics justify the need to create an adequate flood mitigation program in Birmingham, with an emphasis on both the population and the infrastructure, to prevent severe threats to the city’s budget and residents’ property.
The city’s authorities need to draw up a work plan with assistance from emergency management, engineers, and other stakeholders responsible for infrastructure safety. As Karagiorgos et al. (2016) note, technical mitigation is an essential aspect of the preservation of private and public property. Despite the stability of constructions, under high water pressure, even the strongest foundation can be destroyed. Therefore, the planning phase involves compiling a security program for the infrastructure, for instance, by providing additional building reinforcements.
Another important phase that is part of mitigation and planning measures is forecasting. Hardy et al. (2016) state that reliable predictions that allow taking the necessary steps in time and prepare efficient protective solutions are those that help identify flash floods up to seven hours before they appear. The analysis of the level of precipitation, the condition of the soil around watersheds, and other factors are included in the list of these measures. Thus, in case of a successful assessment of all the criteria, such forecasts allow preparing for a potential disaster in advance and take the necessary preventive measures.
Along with ensuring technical safety and protecting infrastructure, individual mitigation is an important aspect of reducing flood risks in Birmingham. According to Karagiorgos et al. (2016), these activities “show in general a positive correlation with low social vulnerability” (p. S73). The tasks to take into account include drawing up a plan for the protection and evacuation of population categories based on their degree of vulnerability, step-by-step planning, assessing risks in accordance with their impacts, and other similar measures. This analytical work can help build rapid actions to reduce flood impacts and minimize damage. Thus, all the proposed steps are valuable factors in mitigating the threat of flash floods with adequate solutions.
Community Preparedness & Communication
Ensuring community preparedness for flash floods in Birmingham is a significant aspect of enabling a set of rapid response and threat prevention measures. Bodoque et al. (2018) argue that one of the important criteria emphasizing successful communication is social resilience as a factor that reflects the perception of risks and the list of decision-making strategies undertaken in the community. The value of risk communication, in turn, lies in the ability to respond to the danger of floods timely to implement all safety measures in accordance with the safety plan and prevent casualties among the population and colossal damage to the city’s infrastructure.
For Birmingham, the community preparedness and communication program can include two main phases: identifying a threat and alerting the public to a potential hazard. As Bodoque et al. (2018) remark, flood-prone territories, as a rule, are controlled, and the relevant security boards monitor the state of this area while taking into account the aforementioned risk factors, in particular, the proportion of precipitation and the state of water bodies. Based on their findings, these boards transmit the necessary data to the authorities, who, in turn, disseminate the information about the risks of flash floods among the population through media resources, for instance, radio, television, or Internet alerts. During the surveillance phase, the community is usually aware of potential risks and knows the evacuation principles outlined in the safety program. After receiving a message about a flood threat, all procedures are carried out in accordance with the response program adopted by the city authorities.
The effectiveness of a risk communication mechanism depends largely on people’s acceptance and understanding of the measures needed to respond to a flash flood. Lazrus et al. (2016) state that the collaborative nature of interaction is one of the key factors in successful communication. After receiving the information about an impending threat, security services are mobilized, and citizens act in accordance with a pre-drawn plan in case of danger. Special warning systems can include not only media channels but also traditional forms of notification, for instance, sirens, which, according to the study by Lazrus et al. (2016), are used almost as actively as television and radio warnings. People who have heard an appropriate signal are aware of the procedure, and based on the security plan, control over preparation and evacuation is transferred to the responsible authorities. These measures are prerequisites for successful risk communication in case of a flash floods threat.
Principles of Response & Recovery
Any security regime and the application of appropriate preparatory measures for flash floods require analyzing not only preventive but also recovery solutions. Tammar et al. (2020) state that “disaster response comprises with recovery activities occur during the post-disaster period” (p. 4668). In Birmingham, where the risk of damage is potentially high due to geographic and climatic conditions, the responsible authorities should be prepared to take the necessary steps. Tammar et al. (2020) offer a list of solutions to respond to flash floods: rescue victims, provide emergency medical care when needed, and help people rebuild disaster-damaged housing. Addressing all of these responsive measures marks the beginning of the recovery phase, when residents, emergency services, and the authorities are mobilized to repair destructions.
To promote and enhance communication, collaboration, and cooperation, the response phase should involve different stakeholders’ efforts to combine resources. Terti et al. (2019) identify first-response authorities responsible for coordinating measures to establish an effective recovery regime. Tammar et al. (2020), in turn, highlight the importance of collaboration among disaster-affected families. This communication is mandatory to provide flood victims with sufficient resources, for instance, temporary shelters. Such activities are essential because, due to individual perceptions and views on the problem, some citizens may oppose help from the authorities. However, a productive recovery phase implies supporting the victims and requires interacting with all stakeholders to address the consequences of disasters timely.
During the recovery phase, in addition to economic factors, some social aspects play an important role. For instance, according to Hossain and Meng (2020), who analyze the case of Birmingham, low-income families are most challenged by the lack of savings to cope with the aftermath of flash floods. At the same time, as the authors argue, racial and ethnic minorities may also find it difficult to obtain the assistance they need, which may be caused by poor access to information about emergency services (Hossain & Meng, 2020). This means that adequate response measures imply the full involvement of the population and the provision of support to all families without exception in need of assistance. Otherwise, inequality manifested during response initiatives reflects the existing social bias and the indifference of the responsible authorities to citizens’ fate. Therefore, productive communication and collaboration are to be established to provide the population with information and resources.
Conclusion
The city of Birmingham, Alabama, is vulnerable to flash floods due to the region’s climates, including a large number of watersheds nearby and frequent and heavy precipitation. Ensuring public safety needs to be organized and adherence to a predetermined plan is imperative. Mitigation measures, risk communication strategies, and response and recovery steps are the components of a comprehensive program to protect and assist the city in case of a disaster. In general, the productive interaction of all responsible services is one of the keys to minimizing damage. Social factors, such as income level or ethnic status of individual families, should not be constraints in providing comprehensive support. Proper planning may contribute to avoiding large losses and human casualties, and resources for recovery will not be colossal.
References
Abdrabo, K. I., Kantosh, S. A., Saber, M., Sumi, T., Habiba, O. M., & Alboshy, B. (2020). The role of urban planning tools in flash flood risk reduction for the urban arid and semi-arid regions. Flash Floods in Wadi System, 1-32. Web.
Bodoque, J. M., DĂez-Herrero, A., AmĂ©rigo, M., GarcĂa, J. A., & Olcina, J. (2018). Enhancing flash flood risk perception and awareness of mitigation actions through risk communication: A pre-post survey design. Journal of Hydrology, 568, 769-779. Web.
Hardy, J., Gourley, J. J., Kirstetter, P. E., Hong, Y., Kong, F., & Flamig, Z. L. (2016). A method for probabilistic flash flood forecasting.Journal of Hydrology, 541, 480-494. Web.
Hossain, M. K., & Meng, Q. (2020). A multi-decadal spatial analysis of demographic vulnerability to urban flood: A case study of Birmingham city, USA. Sustainability, 12(21), 9139. Web.
Karagiorgos, K., Thaler, T., HĂĽbl, J., Maris, F., & Fuchs, S. (2016). Multi-vulnerability analysis for flash flood risk management. Natural Hazards, 82(1), S63-S87. Web.
Lazrus, H., Morss, R. E., Demuth, J. L., Lazo, J. K., & Bostrom, A. (2016). “Know what to do if you encounter a flash flood”: Mental models analysis for improving flash flood risk communication and public decision making. Risk Analysis, 36(2), 411-427. Web.
Severe storms cause flash flooding in Birmingham. (2021). WVTM 13. Web.
Tammar, A., Abosuliman, S. S., & Rahaman, K. R. (2020). Social capital and disaster resilience nexus: A study of flash flood recovery in Jeddah City. Sustainability, 12(11), 4668. Web.
Terti, G., Ruin, I., Gourley, J. J., Kirstetter, P., Flamig, Z., Blanchet, J., Arthur, A., & Anquetin, S. (2019). Toward probabilistic prediction of flash flood human impacts. Risk Analysis, 39(1), 140-161. Web.
Appendix
